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Ancestral Whispers

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Facial reconstructions, Anthropology, Archaeogenetics, Archaeology, Ethnography.

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Facial reconstruction of a 10,500(?)-year-old man from India Sarai Nahar Rai, discovered in 1968 in the Gangetic Plain of Uttar Pradesh, is an important Mesolithic archaeological site. It is known for its well-preserved human skeletal remains, faunal remains, and Mesolithic artifacts. The site contains one of India’s largest collections of Mesolithic human skeletons, mostly complete adult remains. The site lies on the shore of an ancient oxbow lake of the Ganga. Its culture belongs to the Early Mesolithic, characterized by small, finely retouched stone tools such as points, lunates, trapezes, blades, scrapers, and triangles. Tools were mainly made of chalcedony, carnelian, and other fine-grained stones. Small handmade clay vessels were also found in many graves. An uncalibrated radiocarbon date of about 10,500 ± 110 years BP was obtained, though its reliability is uncertain because of possible contamination. Other nearby Mesolithic sites have produced dates ranging from the Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene. Therefore, the exact antiquity of the Indian Mesolithic remains inconclusive. The reconstructed specimen is a male Mesolithic skeleton (Skeleton 1970-IV). The skull is relatively large and robust, with strong muscular markings, prominent brow ridges, broad frontal and parietal regions, and a low, wide face. The teeth are well preserved, with moderate wear and no clear evidence of dental pathology. The postcranial bones are also strong and heavily muscled. The clavicles, humeri, femora, and tibiae show robust development, indicating considerable muscular activity. The femora are eurymeric, while the tibiae are platycnemic. The pelvis is moderately robust. Based on the latest analyses of dental wear and skeletal development, the individual was estimated to be about 24-28 years old at death. He had an above-average skull length (192 mm), breadth (146 mm), and bizygomatic breadth (145 mm), as well as a long mastoid process (31 mm). His porion-bregma height falls within the average range (115 mm). His cranial capacity was approximately 1,450 cm³, and he is estimated to have stood between 168 and 175 cm tall. The Sarai Nahar Rai population consisted of tall, robust individuals, both males and females, in this respect resembling Upper Palaeolithic Europeans and western Asians. They were also similar in stature to some South Asian Mesolithic populations. The skulls were large, muscular, and robust, with broad faces, prominent brow ridges, large mastoid processes, and strong muscle markings. The faces were generally very broad, with low foreheads, deep palates, and massive mandibles. Some jaw features resemble those of Homo erectus and Heidelberg humans. The dentition showed moderate to heavy wear, but dental diseases and abnormalities were uncommon. The teeth were generally mesodont and megadont. The postcranial bones were massive and robust in both sexes. Femora were eurymeric, while tibiae ranged from leptomencemia to mesocnemia. Stature was tall for both males and females. Overall health was good, although few individuals survived beyond 40 years. (Kennedy, K. A. R., Burrow, C. B., & Lovell, N. C. (1986))

Facial reconstruction of a 10,500(?)-year-old man from India Sarai Nahar Rai, discovered in 1968 in the Gangetic Plain of Uttar Pradesh, is an important Mesolithic archaeological site. It is known for its well-preserved human skeletal remains, faunal remains, and Mesolithic artifacts. The site contains one of India’s largest collections of Mesolithic human skeletons, mostly complete adult remains. The site lies on the shore of an ancient oxbow lake of the Ganga. Its culture belongs to the Early Mesolithic, characterized by small, finely retouched stone tools such as points, lunates, trapezes, blades, scrapers, and triangles. Tools were mainly made of chalcedony, carnelian, and other fine-grained stones. Small handmade clay vessels were also found in many graves. An uncalibrated radiocarbon date of about 10,500 ± 110 years BP was obtained, though its reliability is uncertain because of possible contamination. Other nearby Mesolithic sites have produced dates ranging from the Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene. Therefore, the exact antiquity of the Indian Mesolithic remains inconclusive. The reconstructed specimen is a male Mesolithic skeleton (Skeleton 1970-IV). The skull is relatively large and robust, with strong muscular markings, prominent brow ridges, broad frontal and parietal regions, and a low, wide face. The teeth are well preserved, with moderate wear and no clear evidence of dental pathology. The postcranial bones are also strong and heavily muscled. The clavicles, humeri, femora, and tibiae show robust development, indicating considerable muscular activity. The femora are eurymeric, while the tibiae are platycnemic. The pelvis is moderately robust. Based on the latest analyses of dental wear and skeletal development, the individual was estimated to be about 24-28 years old at death. He had an above-average skull length (192 mm), breadth (146 mm), and bizygomatic breadth (145 mm), as well as a long mastoid process (31 mm). His porion-bregma height falls within the average range (115 mm). His cranial capacity was approximately 1,450 cm³, and he is estimated to have stood between 168 and 175 cm tall. The Sarai Nahar Rai population consisted of tall, robust individuals, both males and females, in this respect resembling Upper Palaeolithic Europeans and western Asians. They were also similar in stature to some South Asian Mesolithic populations. The skulls were large, muscular, and robust, with broad faces, prominent brow ridges, large mastoid processes, and strong muscle markings. The faces were generally very broad, with low foreheads, deep palates, and massive mandibles. Some jaw features resemble those of Homo erectus and Heidelberg humans. The dentition showed moderate to heavy wear, but dental diseases and abnormalities were uncommon. The teeth were generally mesodont and megadont. The postcranial bones were massive and robust in both sexes. Femora were eurymeric, while tibiae ranged from leptomencemia to mesocnemia. Stature was tall for both males and females. Overall health was good, although few individuals survived beyond 40 years. (Kennedy, K. A. R., Burrow, C. B., & Lovell, N. C. (1986))

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Facial reconstructions of a 2,300-year-old Pazyryk Scythian male and a female outlier from the same kurgan in Berel, Kazakhstan The man and woman, approximately 30-55 years old and 18-25 years old, respectively, were buried in the same kurgan, richly furnished with grave goods. Morphologically, the two individuals differed: the man displayed a mix of Caucasoid and East Asian traits, with a stronger leaning toward Caucasoid features, similar to other cranial remains from this set, and was likely of local Pazyryk Iranic Scythian elite origin. In contrast, the woman exhibited more pronounced East Eurasian features. Individuals with such traits appear in both common and elite burials, such as at the Ak-Alakha-3/5 cemetery. Archaeologists and anthropologists have speculated that the female outlier may have been incorporated into the elite stratum of Pazyryk society and is possibly associated with the Korgantas culture. Both skeletons show evidence of post-mortem trepanation. The male skull bore an irregular perforation resulting from blunt trauma, later refined with a sharp tool. The female skull exhibited a rectangular perforation (64 × 35.8 mm) with cut marks, along with the excised fragment (42 × 33 mm), suggesting a deliberate opening after death, likely as part of the mummification process. Cranial measurements indicate that the man had a medium-large cranial length of 185 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 147 mm, and a large cheek width of 139 mm. The woman had a large cranial length of 182 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 143 mm, and a large cheek width of 135 mm (Kitov, 2023).

Facial reconstructions of a 2,300-year-old Pazyryk Scythian male and a female outlier from the same kurgan in Berel, Kazakhstan The man and woman, approximately 30-55 years old and 18-25 years old, respectively, were buried in the same kurgan, richly furnished with grave goods. Morphologically, the two individuals differed: the man displayed a mix of Caucasoid and East Asian traits, with a stronger leaning toward Caucasoid features, similar to other cranial remains from this set, and was likely of local Pazyryk Iranic Scythian elite origin. In contrast, the woman exhibited more pronounced East Eurasian features. Individuals with such traits appear in both common and elite burials, such as at the Ak-Alakha-3/5 cemetery. Archaeologists and anthropologists have speculated that the female outlier may have been incorporated into the elite stratum of Pazyryk society and is possibly associated with the Korgantas culture. Both skeletons show evidence of post-mortem trepanation. The male skull bore an irregular perforation resulting from blunt trauma, later refined with a sharp tool. The female skull exhibited a rectangular perforation (64 × 35.8 mm) with cut marks, along with the excised fragment (42 × 33 mm), suggesting a deliberate opening after death, likely as part of the mummification process. Cranial measurements indicate that the man had a medium-large cranial length of 185 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 147 mm, and a large cheek width of 139 mm. The woman had a large cranial length of 182 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 143 mm, and a large cheek width of 135 mm (Kitov, 2023).

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Facial reconstruction of a 4,700-year-old Ural Yamnaya/Tamarutkul woman from the Orenburg region The Cis-Ural variant of the Yamnaya culture, also known as the Ilek group, is distinguished by a high proportion of right-side burials and abundant copper tools (Smirnov, 1965; Morgunova & Kravtsov, 1994; Kuznetsov, 2010). The Tamarutkul type was subsequently identified within this group (Bogdanov, 2004). Its origins remain debated: Morgunova (2011; 2014a) considered it a local development rooted in the Volga-Ural Yamnaya and Khvalynsk populations, while others emphasized links with the Poltavka population and a North Caucasian, particularly Novotitorovka, influence (Kuznetsov, 1996a, 2010). Bogdanov (2004) instead proposed influence in the opposite direction. Tamarutkul skulls differed from the contemporaneous Early Poltavka populations, being predominantly mesomorphic, dolichocranial, and strongly profiled, broadly corresponding to the Southeuropid type (Khokhlov, 2017). Similar traits in the Cis-Urals and northwestern Black Sea region have been hypothesized to reflect the spread of related Novotitorovka/"Wagon Burial" groups from the North Caucasus (Khokhlov, 2000, 2013a; Khokhlov et al., 2024). The Novotitorovka culture emerged within the broader Yamnaya cultural sphere, it morphologically resembles the preceding Maykop-Novosvobodnaya culture (Shevchenko, 1983, p. 84; Gei, 2000), likely due to the assimilation of the aforementioned cultural group. The reconstructed individual was buried in a mound measuring 17 m in diameter and 0.58 m in height. One primary Yamnaya burial was excavated beneath the mound. Burial No. 1. A rectangular grave pit (1.9 × 1.2 m) was identified in the southern half of the mound. Its vertical walls reached a depth of 172 cm, and the floor was covered with a thin layer of ochre on which two skeletons lay. Skeleton No. 1 lay crouched on its right side, with the head oriented eastward. The right hand rested beneath the lower jaw, while the left hand rested on the right elbow. All bones were stained with ochre. Skeleton No. 2 (the reconstructed individual) was undisturbed, but all limb bones except the right tibia were absent. Its skull touched the heel bones of Skeleton No. 1 and showed no ochre staining. Near the thigh of Skeleton No. 1 was an oxidized copper object, while a perforated, worn bone object lay near the skull. A ceramic vessel with a thickened base, wide mouth, and outward-flaring rim was found between the pelvises. The surface of the vessel was partially covered with scratches. Ocher powder was preserved inside. The texture of the ceramic is dense, without visible impurities. A copper socketed axe was found in the northwestern corner of the grave. (Morgunova & Kravtsov, 1994) She had a cranial length, cranial width, bizygomatic width, bigonial width, naso-malar angle, and zygo-maxillary angle of 190 mm, 140 mm, 119 mm, 89 mm, 131°, and 124°, respectively.

Facial reconstruction of a 4,700-year-old Ural Yamnaya/Tamarutkul woman from the Orenburg region The Cis-Ural variant of the Yamnaya culture, also known as the Ilek group, is distinguished by a high proportion of right-side burials and abundant copper tools (Smirnov, 1965; Morgunova & Kravtsov, 1994; Kuznetsov, 2010). The Tamarutkul type was subsequently identified within this group (Bogdanov, 2004). Its origins remain debated: Morgunova (2011; 2014a) considered it a local development rooted in the Volga-Ural Yamnaya and Khvalynsk populations, while others emphasized links with the Poltavka population and a North Caucasian, particularly Novotitorovka, influence (Kuznetsov, 1996a, 2010). Bogdanov (2004) instead proposed influence in the opposite direction. Tamarutkul skulls differed from the contemporaneous Early Poltavka populations, being predominantly mesomorphic, dolichocranial, and strongly profiled, broadly corresponding to the Southeuropid type (Khokhlov, 2017). Similar traits in the Cis-Urals and northwestern Black Sea region have been hypothesized to reflect the spread of related Novotitorovka/"Wagon Burial" groups from the North Caucasus (Khokhlov, 2000, 2013a; Khokhlov et al., 2024). The Novotitorovka culture emerged within the broader Yamnaya cultural sphere, it morphologically resembles the preceding Maykop-Novosvobodnaya culture (Shevchenko, 1983, p. 84; Gei, 2000), likely due to the assimilation of the aforementioned cultural group. The reconstructed individual was buried in a mound measuring 17 m in diameter and 0.58 m in height. One primary Yamnaya burial was excavated beneath the mound. Burial No. 1. A rectangular grave pit (1.9 × 1.2 m) was identified in the southern half of the mound. Its vertical walls reached a depth of 172 cm, and the floor was covered with a thin layer of ochre on which two skeletons lay. Skeleton No. 1 lay crouched on its right side, with the head oriented eastward. The right hand rested beneath the lower jaw, while the left hand rested on the right elbow. All bones were stained with ochre. Skeleton No. 2 (the reconstructed individual) was undisturbed, but all limb bones except the right tibia were absent. Its skull touched the heel bones of Skeleton No. 1 and showed no ochre staining. Near the thigh of Skeleton No. 1 was an oxidized copper object, while a perforated, worn bone object lay near the skull. A ceramic vessel with a thickened base, wide mouth, and outward-flaring rim was found between the pelvises. The surface of the vessel was partially covered with scratches. Ocher powder was preserved inside. The texture of the ceramic is dense, without visible impurities. A copper socketed axe was found in the northwestern corner of the grave. (Morgunova & Kravtsov, 1994) She had a cranial length, cranial width, bizygomatic width, bigonial width, naso-malar angle, and zygo-maxillary angle of 190 mm, 140 mm, 119 mm, 89 mm, 131°, and 124°, respectively.

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Facial reconstruction of a 3,750-year-old acromegalic Aryan smith from Chelyabinsk He belonged to the proto-Indo-Iranian Sintashta culture, which traces its origins farther to the west in Europe. In the late 1970s, archaeologists discovered a fortified settlement of the Sintashta people in the Troitsk district of the Chelyabinsk region, which was named Chernorechye-III. A few years later, not far from it, researchers also identified the ancient cemetery of Krivoe Ozero, where its inhabitants may have been buried. In the third grave of barrow number ten, archaeologists found the skeleton of an adult who had been buried on his side with bent legs and arms, with the hands positioned close to the face. Alongside the skeleton, scientists found ceramic vessels, animal bones, metal objects and fragments of them, as well as pieces of ore and slag. Anthropologists determined that the skeleton belonged to an adult man approximately 164-167 cm tall, who died at an age of over 50. On his bones they identified signs that during his life he had performed heavy physical labor, with more strain on the arm muscles than on the legs. Together with the finds of ore, slag, and metal items, this suggests, according to the researchers, that the burial most likely belongs to an ancient metallurgist who worked in processing copper ore, forging bronze tools, and possibly frequently pumped air into furnaces using bellows. In addition, anthropologists noted this man’s atypical appearance, which differed significantly from the general Sintashta population. Apparently, he suffered from acromegaly - a pituitary disorder that leads to the enlargement and thickening of cranial bones. Moreover, the analysis of ore from this man’s grave showed the presence of material from gold-copper-porphyry deposits. The nearest such deposit with evidence of ancient mining is located in the Ural-Mugodzhary mining-metallurgical center - roughly 300-350 kilometers south of the cemetery. This likely indicates contacts between the Sintashta people and inhabitants of more southern regions. The paleoanthropological material from the site was described by G. V. Rykushina (Rykushina 2003), unfortunately only at the individual level. The author noted the presence of morphologically different skulls in the sample - Europoid (kurgan 1, burial 3; kurgan 10, burial 3; kurgan 10, burial 34), gracile Europoid (kurgan 9, burial 7), and a Europoid skull with equatorial features (kurgan 10, burial 6). Based on the study of pathological markers (such as mastoiditis, cranial infections, and diseases of the dental-jaw system), the author suggested that this group had immigrated from a different climatic zone (Rykushina 2003: 360). A particularly specific skull that should be noted is from kurgan 10, burial 3, which is characterized by overall maturization, dolichocrany, a high cranial vault, a large facial skeleton, and moderate horizontal profiling with a strongly projecting nose. One must agree with G. V. Rykushina’s observation of signs of hormonal disorders that led to the development of acromegaly (Rykushina 2003: 352). This likely caused changes in the size of the facial skeleton, primarily in height and width. However, even without considering these pathologies, this skull is quite distinctive. (E. P. Kitov, A. A. Khokhlov, P. S. Medvedeva 2018) The man had a medium-large cranial length of 182 mm, a medium-small cranial width of 135 mm, and a broad cheekbone width of around 145 mm.

Facial reconstruction of a 3,750-year-old acromegalic Aryan smith from Chelyabinsk He belonged to the proto-Indo-Iranian Sintashta culture, which traces its origins farther to the west in Europe. In the late 1970s, archaeologists discovered a fortified settlement of the Sintashta people in the Troitsk district of the Chelyabinsk region, which was named Chernorechye-III. A few years later, not far from it, researchers also identified the ancient cemetery of Krivoe Ozero, where its inhabitants may have been buried. In the third grave of barrow number ten, archaeologists found the skeleton of an adult who had been buried on his side with bent legs and arms, with the hands positioned close to the face. Alongside the skeleton, scientists found ceramic vessels, animal bones, metal objects and fragments of them, as well as pieces of ore and slag. Anthropologists determined that the skeleton belonged to an adult man approximately 164-167 cm tall, who died at an age of over 50. On his bones they identified signs that during his life he had performed heavy physical labor, with more strain on the arm muscles than on the legs. Together with the finds of ore, slag, and metal items, this suggests, according to the researchers, that the burial most likely belongs to an ancient metallurgist who worked in processing copper ore, forging bronze tools, and possibly frequently pumped air into furnaces using bellows. In addition, anthropologists noted this man’s atypical appearance, which differed significantly from the general Sintashta population. Apparently, he suffered from acromegaly - a pituitary disorder that leads to the enlargement and thickening of cranial bones. Moreover, the analysis of ore from this man’s grave showed the presence of material from gold-copper-porphyry deposits. The nearest such deposit with evidence of ancient mining is located in the Ural-Mugodzhary mining-metallurgical center - roughly 300-350 kilometers south of the cemetery. This likely indicates contacts between the Sintashta people and inhabitants of more southern regions. The paleoanthropological material from the site was described by G. V. Rykushina (Rykushina 2003), unfortunately only at the individual level. The author noted the presence of morphologically different skulls in the sample - Europoid (kurgan 1, burial 3; kurgan 10, burial 3; kurgan 10, burial 34), gracile Europoid (kurgan 9, burial 7), and a Europoid skull with equatorial features (kurgan 10, burial 6). Based on the study of pathological markers (such as mastoiditis, cranial infections, and diseases of the dental-jaw system), the author suggested that this group had immigrated from a different climatic zone (Rykushina 2003: 360). A particularly specific skull that should be noted is from kurgan 10, burial 3, which is characterized by overall maturization, dolichocrany, a high cranial vault, a large facial skeleton, and moderate horizontal profiling with a strongly projecting nose. One must agree with G. V. Rykushina’s observation of signs of hormonal disorders that led to the development of acromegaly (Rykushina 2003: 352). This likely caused changes in the size of the facial skeleton, primarily in height and width. However, even without considering these pathologies, this skull is quite distinctive. (E. P. Kitov, A. A. Khokhlov, P. S. Medvedeva 2018) The man had a medium-large cranial length of 182 mm, a medium-small cranial width of 135 mm, and a broad cheekbone width of around 145 mm.

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Facial reconstruction of a 11,250-year-old man from Nigeria The Iwo Eleru rock shelter in Nigeria, excavated in 1965, yielded over 500,000 Late Stone Age artifacts and radiocarbon dates ranging from ~15,000 to 9250 BC. A poorly preserved, tightly contracted human skeleton was found in undisturbed layers. The skull is long and low, with moderate brow ridges, a sloping forehead, and relatively flat nasal features. Despite some post-mortem distortion and reconstruction, its overall shape appears reliable. The face is mostly missing (missing hard tissue fragments were added for the reconstruction, some aspects of which are hypothetical), but the mandible is robust, though lacking a pronounced chin. The postcranial skeleton is highly fragmented, making precise measurements difficult. However, the long bones suggest a moderately robust individual of medium build, with an estimated height not exceeding ~165 cm. It has been argued that the Iwo Eleru fossil represents either an archaic hybrid or a relict archaic Homo population. In 2014, Christopher Stojanowski of Arizona State University outlined three main explanations for its unusual cranial shape: It was a hybrid with archaic African populations; it belonged to a relict archaic group later replaced by modern humans at the start of the Holocene; or it came from a population that diverged from other North African groups during a period of extreme Saharan aridity.

Facial reconstruction of a 11,250-year-old man from Nigeria The Iwo Eleru rock shelter in Nigeria, excavated in 1965, yielded over 500,000 Late Stone Age artifacts and radiocarbon dates ranging from ~15,000 to 9250 BC. A poorly preserved, tightly contracted human skeleton was found in undisturbed layers. The skull is long and low, with moderate brow ridges, a sloping forehead, and relatively flat nasal features. Despite some post-mortem distortion and reconstruction, its overall shape appears reliable. The face is mostly missing (missing hard tissue fragments were added for the reconstruction, some aspects of which are hypothetical), but the mandible is robust, though lacking a pronounced chin. The postcranial skeleton is highly fragmented, making precise measurements difficult. However, the long bones suggest a moderately robust individual of medium build, with an estimated height not exceeding ~165 cm. It has been argued that the Iwo Eleru fossil represents either an archaic hybrid or a relict archaic Homo population. In 2014, Christopher Stojanowski of Arizona State University outlined three main explanations for its unusual cranial shape: It was a hybrid with archaic African populations; it belonged to a relict archaic group later replaced by modern humans at the start of the Holocene; or it came from a population that diverged from other North African groups during a period of extreme Saharan aridity.

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Facial reconstruction of a 2,000-year-old individual from the Saka-Wusun period at Ala-Myshyk, Tian Shan, Kyrgyzstan The union of the Wusun tribes, which became especially powerful in the 3rd-1st centuries BC, had the ruler’s (Gunmo) headquarters in the city of Chigu, on the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul. The weakening of the Wusun confederation began in the 1st century AD, when it suffered a strong blow from the Xiongnu, but it was fully destroyed in the 4th-5th centuries AD by the Rourans, who are thought to have come from Mongolia. The first cranial data on the Wusun of the Tian Shan were studied by T. A. Trofimova (1936, 1949), based on seven skulls dated to the 1st century BC-1st century AD, excavated near Karakol at the eastern end of Issyk-Kul. G. F. Debets later expanded the sample with finds from S. A. Teploukhov and, in 1948, confirmed its classification within the Central Asian interfluve type. These skulls lie at the lower boundary of brachycrania (CI: males 81.3, females 83.4), with medium-high vaults, relatively broad faces, orthognathous but moderately profiled features, and moderately projecting noses. Only two show lower cranial indices, one with a narrow face. Overall, the series is predominantly Europoid with slight Mongolid admixture. The cranial vault dimensions of the Wusun are of medium size, which corresponds to a cranial index of 81, placing them at the lower boundary of brachycrania. The facial part of the skull is low (males - 71 mm, females — 68 mm), but fairly broad (males - 137 mm, females - 126 mm). The horizontal facial profile is moderate (zygomaxillary angle - 131°). Nasal projection is medium or above average (males - 28°, females - 22°), while the height of the nasal bridge tends toward higher values. Overall, the Wusun of the Tian Shan occupy an intermediate position between the major races. They belong to the Europoid race, but show a clear, though slight, Mongolid admixture, expressed in a certain facial flatness. These Mongolid traits appear superimposed upon an essentially Europoid cranial base. Some skulls show little to no Mongolid influence, while others display it more strongly. More detailed analysis shows this type to be intermediate between the Andronovo type and the Central Asian interfluve type, with varying degrees of transition between them. At the same time, the Wusun of the Tian Shan and Alay also show admixture from another Europoid type - dolichocranial, narrow-faced, Mediterranean. In the Tian Shan, this component appears scattered among the population, whereas in the Alay Valley it is concentrated in specific burial grounds, suggesting kin-based groupings and differing ethnic connections among tribes. Some tribes were clearly in contact with populations of the Pamir Plateau, which during the Saka-Wusun period belonged to a distinctly Mediterranean Europoid type, as noted earlier. (Ginzburg & Trofimova, 1972)

Facial reconstruction of a 2,000-year-old individual from the Saka-Wusun period at Ala-Myshyk, Tian Shan, Kyrgyzstan The union of the Wusun tribes, which became especially powerful in the 3rd-1st centuries BC, had the ruler’s (Gunmo) headquarters in the city of Chigu, on the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul. The weakening of the Wusun confederation began in the 1st century AD, when it suffered a strong blow from the Xiongnu, but it was fully destroyed in the 4th-5th centuries AD by the Rourans, who are thought to have come from Mongolia. The first cranial data on the Wusun of the Tian Shan were studied by T. A. Trofimova (1936, 1949), based on seven skulls dated to the 1st century BC-1st century AD, excavated near Karakol at the eastern end of Issyk-Kul. G. F. Debets later expanded the sample with finds from S. A. Teploukhov and, in 1948, confirmed its classification within the Central Asian interfluve type. These skulls lie at the lower boundary of brachycrania (CI: males 81.3, females 83.4), with medium-high vaults, relatively broad faces, orthognathous but moderately profiled features, and moderately projecting noses. Only two show lower cranial indices, one with a narrow face. Overall, the series is predominantly Europoid with slight Mongolid admixture. The cranial vault dimensions of the Wusun are of medium size, which corresponds to a cranial index of 81, placing them at the lower boundary of brachycrania. The facial part of the skull is low (males - 71 mm, females — 68 mm), but fairly broad (males - 137 mm, females - 126 mm). The horizontal facial profile is moderate (zygomaxillary angle - 131°). Nasal projection is medium or above average (males - 28°, females - 22°), while the height of the nasal bridge tends toward higher values. Overall, the Wusun of the Tian Shan occupy an intermediate position between the major races. They belong to the Europoid race, but show a clear, though slight, Mongolid admixture, expressed in a certain facial flatness. These Mongolid traits appear superimposed upon an essentially Europoid cranial base. Some skulls show little to no Mongolid influence, while others display it more strongly. More detailed analysis shows this type to be intermediate between the Andronovo type and the Central Asian interfluve type, with varying degrees of transition between them. At the same time, the Wusun of the Tian Shan and Alay also show admixture from another Europoid type - dolichocranial, narrow-faced, Mediterranean. In the Tian Shan, this component appears scattered among the population, whereas in the Alay Valley it is concentrated in specific burial grounds, suggesting kin-based groupings and differing ethnic connections among tribes. Some tribes were clearly in contact with populations of the Pamir Plateau, which during the Saka-Wusun period belonged to a distinctly Mediterranean Europoid type, as noted earlier. (Ginzburg & Trofimova, 1972)

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Facial reconstruction of a Yamnaya man from Bykovo, Volgograd region Unlike most Yamnaya individuals, who typically carried R1b-Z2103, this individual belonged to the R1b-M269 lineage, upstream to both Z2103 and L51. He was buried with Repin-type ceramics, possibly indicating a connection to, or intrusion from, Repin cultural groups (Merpert, 1974), (Khokhlov et al., 2024). Cranially, he (Bykovo II, 12/7) fits well within the broader Yamnaya morphological spectrum, described as robust and hypermorphic, and classified as Protoeuropoid (Glazkova & Chtetsov, 1960). His cranial measurements - length 204 mm, width 145 mm, and bizygomatic breadth 145 mm - are very large. (Khokhlov, 2017) Other individuals with R1b-M269 have also been identified in the Volga–Ural Yamnaya context - Lopatino I (1/1), and Krasikovsky I (1/1) - with the latter sites likewise yielding large, robust Protoeuropoid cranial types (Khokhlov, 2017), (Khokhlov et al., 2024).

Facial reconstruction of a Yamnaya man from Bykovo, Volgograd region Unlike most Yamnaya individuals, who typically carried R1b-Z2103, this individual belonged to the R1b-M269 lineage, upstream to both Z2103 and L51. He was buried with Repin-type ceramics, possibly indicating a connection to, or intrusion from, Repin cultural groups (Merpert, 1974), (Khokhlov et al., 2024). Cranially, he (Bykovo II, 12/7) fits well within the broader Yamnaya morphological spectrum, described as robust and hypermorphic, and classified as Protoeuropoid (Glazkova & Chtetsov, 1960). His cranial measurements - length 204 mm, width 145 mm, and bizygomatic breadth 145 mm - are very large. (Khokhlov, 2017) Other individuals with R1b-M269 have also been identified in the Volga–Ural Yamnaya context - Lopatino I (1/1), and Krasikovsky I (1/1) - with the latter sites likewise yielding large, robust Protoeuropoid cranial types (Khokhlov, 2017), (Khokhlov et al., 2024).

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Facial reconstruction of a 9,500-year-old man from Gobero, Ténéré Desert, Niger The Kiffian culture was an Early Holocene culture that existed in the Sahara during the African Humid Period, also referred to as the Neolithic Subpluvial. The site of Gobero is known as one of the largest and earliest burial sites of Stone Age people in the Sahara. The Kiffians were skilled hunters. The remains of numerous large savannah animals found in the same area suggest that they inhabited the shores of a lake that existed during the Holocene Wet Phase, when the Sahara was a lush and humid environment. Kiffian remains are notable for their height; the reconstructed individual (G3B8) was approximately 188 cm tall. The Early Holocene skulls from Gobero share a number of traits with populations of the Sahara and Maghreb from the Late Upper Paleolithic and Early Holocene and were therefore described as “Mechtoid” (Sereno et al., 2008). However, the published study does not distinguish anthropologically between “Mechtoids” from the northern and southern parts of the Sahara, although this distinction is clearly evident in other studies. It therefore remains unclear whether the features of the Early Holocene inhabitants of Gobero were predominantly Sub-Saharan or genuinely “Mechtoid.” Moreover, it is possible that the Middle Holocene group had an origin independent of that of the Early Holocene population (S. V. Drobyshevsky, Antropogenez). A more recent study by Christopher M. Stojanowski, Joel D. Irish, and Paul C. Sereno (2026) found that the inter-sample affinities suggest that the successive Gobero populations are dentally indistinguishable, indicating population continuity at the site despite significant climatic deterioration. Both the Early and Middle Holocene samples from Gobero share dental affinities with Nile Valley populations, particularly those from the multicomponent Sudanese site of al-Khiday. However, both samples also display intermediate affinities with northern and Sub-Saharan African populations. These results suggest that, for much of the Holocene, an admixed population inhabited the central Sahara, with a primarily East African/Nile Valley origin. Nevertheless, as the climate deteriorated, interactions with northern and Sub-Saharan African populations cannot be ruled out.

Facial reconstruction of a 9,500-year-old man from Gobero, Ténéré Desert, Niger The Kiffian culture was an Early Holocene culture that existed in the Sahara during the African Humid Period, also referred to as the Neolithic Subpluvial. The site of Gobero is known as one of the largest and earliest burial sites of Stone Age people in the Sahara. The Kiffians were skilled hunters. The remains of numerous large savannah animals found in the same area suggest that they inhabited the shores of a lake that existed during the Holocene Wet Phase, when the Sahara was a lush and humid environment. Kiffian remains are notable for their height; the reconstructed individual (G3B8) was approximately 188 cm tall. The Early Holocene skulls from Gobero share a number of traits with populations of the Sahara and Maghreb from the Late Upper Paleolithic and Early Holocene and were therefore described as “Mechtoid” (Sereno et al., 2008). However, the published study does not distinguish anthropologically between “Mechtoids” from the northern and southern parts of the Sahara, although this distinction is clearly evident in other studies. It therefore remains unclear whether the features of the Early Holocene inhabitants of Gobero were predominantly Sub-Saharan or genuinely “Mechtoid.” Moreover, it is possible that the Middle Holocene group had an origin independent of that of the Early Holocene population (S. V. Drobyshevsky, Antropogenez). A more recent study by Christopher M. Stojanowski, Joel D. Irish, and Paul C. Sereno (2026) found that the inter-sample affinities suggest that the successive Gobero populations are dentally indistinguishable, indicating population continuity at the site despite significant climatic deterioration. Both the Early and Middle Holocene samples from Gobero share dental affinities with Nile Valley populations, particularly those from the multicomponent Sudanese site of al-Khiday. However, both samples also display intermediate affinities with northern and Sub-Saharan African populations. These results suggest that, for much of the Holocene, an admixed population inhabited the central Sahara, with a primarily East African/Nile Valley origin. Nevertheless, as the climate deteriorated, interactions with northern and Sub-Saharan African populations cannot be ruled out.

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Facial reconstruction of a 9,400-year-old EHG from Minino, Vologda Region This individual (Minino 2, Burial 3 / MIN3), carrying Y-DNA haplogroup J1 and mtDNA haplogroup U4a1, is one of the oldest known J1 ancient DNA samples identified to date, alongside Satsurblia CHG from Georgia and Nemrik PPN from Iraq. Autosomally, he was a typical EHG individual (Hofmanova et al. 2022). The Minino archaeological cluster, located on Lake Kubenskoye (Minino I and Minino II, Vologda Region), was identified and systematically described by A. V. Suvorov, who studied the Mesolithic and Neolithic materials from the site (Suvorov, 2001). The analysis of the craniological characteristics of the male skull series from Minino revealed similarities with the populations associated with the Veretye and Onega cultures. The morphological variant represented by the Minino 2 population is most frequently found among Mesolithic and Upper Paleolithic populations of northern Eastern Europe. Similar cranial features are observed in individuals from Mesolithic burial sites such as Yuzhny Oleniy Ostrov, Popovo, Peschanitsa, Zvejnieki, Vasilievka I, and several others. The males from the Minino burial ground had, on average, a medium-large cranial length (183.3 mm) and a medium-small cranial breadth (135 mm) (A. P. Buzhilova, 2017).

Facial reconstruction of a 9,400-year-old EHG from Minino, Vologda Region This individual (Minino 2, Burial 3 / MIN3), carrying Y-DNA haplogroup J1 and mtDNA haplogroup U4a1, is one of the oldest known J1 ancient DNA samples identified to date, alongside Satsurblia CHG from Georgia and Nemrik PPN from Iraq. Autosomally, he was a typical EHG individual (Hofmanova et al. 2022). The Minino archaeological cluster, located on Lake Kubenskoye (Minino I and Minino II, Vologda Region), was identified and systematically described by A. V. Suvorov, who studied the Mesolithic and Neolithic materials from the site (Suvorov, 2001). The analysis of the craniological characteristics of the male skull series from Minino revealed similarities with the populations associated with the Veretye and Onega cultures. The morphological variant represented by the Minino 2 population is most frequently found among Mesolithic and Upper Paleolithic populations of northern Eastern Europe. Similar cranial features are observed in individuals from Mesolithic burial sites such as Yuzhny Oleniy Ostrov, Popovo, Peschanitsa, Zvejnieki, Vasilievka I, and several others. The males from the Minino burial ground had, on average, a medium-large cranial length (183.3 mm) and a medium-small cranial breadth (135 mm) (A. P. Buzhilova, 2017).

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Facial reconstruction of a 2,150-year-old man from Chios, Greece Ancient Greek medical texts, including those attributed to Hippocrates, describe various forms of cranial surgery. However, the practice of cranial surgery in Greece predates Hippocrates by many centuries. The oldest skeletal evidence of trepanation was found in a Minoan ossuary in Crete (2200–1720 BC). Trepanned skulls from different periods have also been discovered in Delphi (1700–1750 BC), the Peloponnese (1400–1060 BC), Crete (8th century BC), Abdera (7th century BC), and elsewhere, indicating a wide geographic and chronological distribution (Georgios Tsermoulas, Asterios Aidonis, Graham Flint, 2014). The burial at Chios, a cist tomb dating to the second half of the 2nd century BC, contained the remains of a man estimated to have been around 50 years old. His skull had a circular opening in the left parietal region, measuring approximately 1.62 cm in diameter. Examination of the margins of the opening indicated that it was surgically created and had undergone substantial healing, suggesting that the man survived the procedure. According to anthropologist Asterios Aidonis, the limited signs of infection and the degree of healing indicate that the individual may have survived for approximately five to six years after the operation, eventually dying at around 50 years of age.

Facial reconstruction of a 2,150-year-old man from Chios, Greece Ancient Greek medical texts, including those attributed to Hippocrates, describe various forms of cranial surgery. However, the practice of cranial surgery in Greece predates Hippocrates by many centuries. The oldest skeletal evidence of trepanation was found in a Minoan ossuary in Crete (2200–1720 BC). Trepanned skulls from different periods have also been discovered in Delphi (1700–1750 BC), the Peloponnese (1400–1060 BC), Crete (8th century BC), Abdera (7th century BC), and elsewhere, indicating a wide geographic and chronological distribution (Georgios Tsermoulas, Asterios Aidonis, Graham Flint, 2014). The burial at Chios, a cist tomb dating to the second half of the 2nd century BC, contained the remains of a man estimated to have been around 50 years old. His skull had a circular opening in the left parietal region, measuring approximately 1.62 cm in diameter. Examination of the margins of the opening indicated that it was surgically created and had undergone substantial healing, suggesting that the man survived the procedure. According to anthropologist Asterios Aidonis, the limited signs of infection and the degree of healing indicate that the individual may have survived for approximately five to six years after the operation, eventually dying at around 50 years of age.

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Facial reconstruction of a 6,800-year-old man from the Middle Volga The individual (Khvalynsk II, Burial 26), who carried Y-DNA J1-CTS1026, belonged to the Khvalynsk culture. The Khvalynsk cemeteries (201 burials) are the largest Eneolithic burial grounds in the Don–Volga–Ural region. They were initially regarded as likely precursors of the Yamnaya culture because of shared features such as shell-tempered pottery, similar burial positions, the use of ochre, and comparable decorative motifs. However, Khvalynsk is a flat cemetery rather than a kurgan cemetery, differs in its tools and material culture, and predates the Yamnaya culture by over 1,000 years. The cemeteries contained an exceptional number of copper artifacts (373) and numerous sacrificial domestic animals, including goats (the same goat lineage identified at Khvalynsk has also been found in Eneolithic Dagestan). Genetic, anthropological, and archaeological evidence indicates that the population combined ancestry from the Forest-Steppe, the Lower Don, and the North Caucasus, forming a genetically diverse community with extensive marriage networks. Khvalynsk was an important ritual and exchange center connected to the Balkan-Carpathian Metallurgical Province, which supplied copper from Balkan cultures such as Karanovo, Gumelnița, and Trypillia. The people of the Khvalynsk culture may have spoken a very archaic form of a Para-Indo-European language. The physical appearance of the bearers of the Khvalynsk culture was the result of admixture processes that took place throughout the Eneolithic between representatives of different Europoid populations: on the one hand, a hypermorphic western anthropological type, and on the other, a hypomorphic, gracile eastern type (Yablonsky 1990, p. 78; Yablonsky 1996, pp. 127–128). Based on the material from the Khvalynsk II cemetery, at least three morphological variants can be distinguished (Khokhlov 1998b): The first is dolicho-mesocranial, with a large facial skeleton and a well-profiled face, resembling the Nadporozhye–Azov cranial complex that was widespread among Neolithic populations of the Dnieper-Donets area (Ukr_N, Golubaya Krinitsa, Rakushechny Yar clusters). However, this complex appears in a more attenuated form. The second variant is characterized by a certain gracility, dolicho-mesocrany, and a moderately flattened facial skeleton. This complex finds its closest analogies among the Neo-Eneolithic skulls of the forest and forest-steppe regions of the Volga–Ural area and the Middle Volga (EHG cluster). The third variant is dolichocranial, with a narrow and strongly profiled face, and is close to the ancient Mediterranean type. This type show affinities with populations of the Trypillia culture, the Caucasus, and the Near East, with the closest parallels coming from the Caucasus. Although most comparative Caucasian series (such as the Kura-Araxes culture) are later in date, a contemporaneous Eneolithic female skull from Nalchik (genetically Mesopotamian/Lower Don 50/50) closely resembles the Khvalynsk material, it demonstrates a pronounced dolichocranial europoid type [Debets, 1948, p. 107], and in general dimensions it is quite close to Khvalynsk skulls. Another similar Southeuropoid skull comes from Koskuduk I in the eastern Caspian, where the local Oiuklin culture has been linked to interactions between Khvalynsk migrants and Kelteminar (Sarazam, Anau cluster) culture groups. However, the origin of this southern Europoid component in the Khvalynsk population remains uncertain because Eneolithic anthropological evidence is sparse. (Khokhlov, 2010a, 2017) Burial 26 contained the remains of an individual that was originally identified as female, aDNA revealed that the individual was genetically male. He was buried supine, with his head facing northwest, tightly flexed legs turned to the right, bent arms, and the skull tilted slightly forward and to the left. The skeleton was covered with ochre, with the heaviest staining on the feet and elbows. An ochre patch was found beside the skull, and shell beads were recovered from the skull, left shoulder, pelvis, and waist area. The individual’s (I6735) Y-DNA belongs to a lineage upstream of the main Kura-Araxes lineage, which was widespread in the EBA South Caucasus and Dagestan. A related lineage has also been found in the Afanasievo culture. His mtDNA, U4a, is a common EHG maternal lineage. Autosomally, he was roughly half EHG half Steppe Eneolithic.

Facial reconstruction of a 6,800-year-old man from the Middle Volga The individual (Khvalynsk II, Burial 26), who carried Y-DNA J1-CTS1026, belonged to the Khvalynsk culture. The Khvalynsk cemeteries (201 burials) are the largest Eneolithic burial grounds in the Don–Volga–Ural region. They were initially regarded as likely precursors of the Yamnaya culture because of shared features such as shell-tempered pottery, similar burial positions, the use of ochre, and comparable decorative motifs. However, Khvalynsk is a flat cemetery rather than a kurgan cemetery, differs in its tools and material culture, and predates the Yamnaya culture by over 1,000 years. The cemeteries contained an exceptional number of copper artifacts (373) and numerous sacrificial domestic animals, including goats (the same goat lineage identified at Khvalynsk has also been found in Eneolithic Dagestan). Genetic, anthropological, and archaeological evidence indicates that the population combined ancestry from the Forest-Steppe, the Lower Don, and the North Caucasus, forming a genetically diverse community with extensive marriage networks. Khvalynsk was an important ritual and exchange center connected to the Balkan-Carpathian Metallurgical Province, which supplied copper from Balkan cultures such as Karanovo, Gumelnița, and Trypillia. The people of the Khvalynsk culture may have spoken a very archaic form of a Para-Indo-European language. The physical appearance of the bearers of the Khvalynsk culture was the result of admixture processes that took place throughout the Eneolithic between representatives of different Europoid populations: on the one hand, a hypermorphic western anthropological type, and on the other, a hypomorphic, gracile eastern type (Yablonsky 1990, p. 78; Yablonsky 1996, pp. 127–128). Based on the material from the Khvalynsk II cemetery, at least three morphological variants can be distinguished (Khokhlov 1998b): The first is dolicho-mesocranial, with a large facial skeleton and a well-profiled face, resembling the Nadporozhye–Azov cranial complex that was widespread among Neolithic populations of the Dnieper-Donets area (Ukr_N, Golubaya Krinitsa, Rakushechny Yar clusters). However, this complex appears in a more attenuated form. The second variant is characterized by a certain gracility, dolicho-mesocrany, and a moderately flattened facial skeleton. This complex finds its closest analogies among the Neo-Eneolithic skulls of the forest and forest-steppe regions of the Volga–Ural area and the Middle Volga (EHG cluster). The third variant is dolichocranial, with a narrow and strongly profiled face, and is close to the ancient Mediterranean type. This type show affinities with populations of the Trypillia culture, the Caucasus, and the Near East, with the closest parallels coming from the Caucasus. Although most comparative Caucasian series (such as the Kura-Araxes culture) are later in date, a contemporaneous Eneolithic female skull from Nalchik (genetically Mesopotamian/Lower Don 50/50) closely resembles the Khvalynsk material, it demonstrates a pronounced dolichocranial europoid type [Debets, 1948, p. 107], and in general dimensions it is quite close to Khvalynsk skulls. Another similar Southeuropoid skull comes from Koskuduk I in the eastern Caspian, where the local Oiuklin culture has been linked to interactions between Khvalynsk migrants and Kelteminar (Sarazam, Anau cluster) culture groups. However, the origin of this southern Europoid component in the Khvalynsk population remains uncertain because Eneolithic anthropological evidence is sparse. (Khokhlov, 2010a, 2017) Burial 26 contained the remains of an individual that was originally identified as female, aDNA revealed that the individual was genetically male. He was buried supine, with his head facing northwest, tightly flexed legs turned to the right, bent arms, and the skull tilted slightly forward and to the left. The skeleton was covered with ochre, with the heaviest staining on the feet and elbows. An ochre patch was found beside the skull, and shell beads were recovered from the skull, left shoulder, pelvis, and waist area. The individual’s (I6735) Y-DNA belongs to a lineage upstream of the main Kura-Araxes lineage, which was widespread in the EBA South Caucasus and Dagestan. A related lineage has also been found in the Afanasievo culture. His mtDNA, U4a, is a common EHG maternal lineage. Autosomally, he was roughly half EHG half Steppe Eneolithic.

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Facial reconstruction of a 5,100-year-old Afanasievan from Mongolia with Yamnaya-like auDNA He carried Y-DNA haplogroup J1a2b and mtDNA U5a1. His maternal lineage, associated with European hunter-gatherers, was widespread among Indo-Europeans. His paternal lineage, J1a2b, has been previously detected in the Khvalynsk culture; a downstream of this haplogroup also dominates the Y-DNA of the Kura-Araxes culture, possibly suggesting a dispersal of J1a2b from the Caucasus into the Steppe, where a related branch persisted and became the main haplogroup of the Kura-Araxes culture. The man, belonging to the Paleoeuropoid/Protoeuropoid type, stood roughly 180 cm tall (498mm femur length) and possessed a notably massive and robust skull, with a very long cranial length of 193 mm, massive cranial width of 151 mm, and a very broad cheekbone width of 147 mm. In Inner Asia, the Bronze Age begins with the emergence of the Afanasievo culture, which spread across vast regions of southern Siberia and Central Asia. Its sites are known from western and central Mongolia, eastern Kazakhstan, the Dzungarian Basin, and even the Middle Zarafshan, though the highest concentration lies in the Altai and the Minusinsk Basin. AMS radiocarbon dates place the Afanasievo horizon between 3300–2500 BCE. Both anthropological and ancient DNA evidence indicate that the Afanasievo culture arose from a migration of populations from Eastern Europe, specifically from the Yamnaya cultural sphere (Solodovnikov et al. 2023). The Altai Afanasievo individuals rank among the tallest ancient populations of Eurasia (Solodovnikov et al. 2018). A similarly tall stature is seen among Afanasievo individuals from central Mongolia, based on limited material from the Shatar-Chuluu cemetery (where the reconstructed individual was found) near the Khangai range (Tumen 1978; Solodovnikov, Erdene 2022). Two published Afanasievo individuals have been identified as fifth-degree relatives. One was buried at Inskaya Dol in the northwestern Altai (I11752, BARN-039) [Narasimhan et al. 2019], and the other at the Shatar-Chuluu cemetery in central Mongolia (SHT002, AT-25 (I6221, the reconstructed individual)) [Jeong et al. 2020; Ringbauer et al. 2023]. Although these sites lie 1,410 km apart, both individuals share the characteristic Afanasievo/Yamnaya genetic profile and cluster closely with other Afanasievo samples. Their biological relationship implies that at least one ancestor in their family line must have traveled several hundred kilometers within their lifetime.

Facial reconstruction of a 5,100-year-old Afanasievan from Mongolia with Yamnaya-like auDNA He carried Y-DNA haplogroup J1a2b and mtDNA U5a1. His maternal lineage, associated with European hunter-gatherers, was widespread among Indo-Europeans. His paternal lineage, J1a2b, has been previously detected in the Khvalynsk culture; a downstream of this haplogroup also dominates the Y-DNA of the Kura-Araxes culture, possibly suggesting a dispersal of J1a2b from the Caucasus into the Steppe, where a related branch persisted and became the main haplogroup of the Kura-Araxes culture. The man, belonging to the Paleoeuropoid/Protoeuropoid type, stood roughly 180 cm tall (498mm femur length) and possessed a notably massive and robust skull, with a very long cranial length of 193 mm, massive cranial width of 151 mm, and a very broad cheekbone width of 147 mm. In Inner Asia, the Bronze Age begins with the emergence of the Afanasievo culture, which spread across vast regions of southern Siberia and Central Asia. Its sites are known from western and central Mongolia, eastern Kazakhstan, the Dzungarian Basin, and even the Middle Zarafshan, though the highest concentration lies in the Altai and the Minusinsk Basin. AMS radiocarbon dates place the Afanasievo horizon between 3300–2500 BCE. Both anthropological and ancient DNA evidence indicate that the Afanasievo culture arose from a migration of populations from Eastern Europe, specifically from the Yamnaya cultural sphere (Solodovnikov et al. 2023). The Altai Afanasievo individuals rank among the tallest ancient populations of Eurasia (Solodovnikov et al. 2018). A similarly tall stature is seen among Afanasievo individuals from central Mongolia, based on limited material from the Shatar-Chuluu cemetery (where the reconstructed individual was found) near the Khangai range (Tumen 1978; Solodovnikov, Erdene 2022). Two published Afanasievo individuals have been identified as fifth-degree relatives. One was buried at Inskaya Dol in the northwestern Altai (I11752, BARN-039) [Narasimhan et al. 2019], and the other at the Shatar-Chuluu cemetery in central Mongolia (SHT002, AT-25 (I6221, the reconstructed individual)) [Jeong et al. 2020; Ringbauer et al. 2023]. Although these sites lie 1,410 km apart, both individuals share the characteristic Afanasievo/Yamnaya genetic profile and cluster closely with other Afanasievo samples. Their biological relationship implies that at least one ancestor in their family line must have traveled several hundred kilometers within their lifetime.

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Facial Reconstruction of a 37,000-Year-Old Man from Egypt In 1980, excavations of a hill near the village of Nazlet Khater in Upper Egypt uncovered two burials. The first skeleton was poorly preserved, but the second, located on the summit of the hill, survived almost intact - only the feet were missing. The grave was shallow and had been eroded by Nile flooding, causing the skull to become exposed on the surface. The skeleton of an adult male was found lying on his back, accompanied by a large flint axe. The Nazlet Khater 2 skeleton is one of the few complete human skeleton from the Early Upper Paleolithic of North Africa. The remains belonged to a man aged approximately 20-29 years who stood around 160 cm tall. Not far from the hill was a flint quarry where prehistoric people extracted raw material. Evidence of intensive mining activity includes trenches, shafts, and narrow tunnels no more than 50 cm high, apparently dug around the same period as the burials. The stone axe found in the Nazlet Khater 2 grave was probably used for quarrying, as identical tools have been discovered in the ancient mines. The skeletal pathologies are particularly revealing in this regard. Multiple injuries and degenerative changes in the spine and limbs indicate extremely heavy physical labor, typical of mining activities and the regular lifting of heavy loads. Severe arthritis of the cervical vertebrae suggests that this man habitually carried heavy burdens on his head or with the aid of a forehead strap, as some traditional peoples do today. Damage to the arms indicates extensive use of percussion tools, especially with the right hand. He also had healed fractures of the hands. Evidently, he began performing strenuous labor in adolescence, while his bones were still developing. Physically, Nazlet Khater 2 differs from other African and European Upper Paleolithic humans, although they share a number of archaic features. His primary morphological characteristics are clearly equatorial, resembling those of the Epipaleolithic inhabitants of Nubia as well as the South African remains from Springbok Flats and Kalomo, which were once considered very ancient (Pinhasi & Semal, 2000) but are now known to be much more recent. The large cranial vault of Nazlet Khater 2 is typical of Upper Paleolithic humans. The expansion of the braincase in its lower portion is particularly archaic, as are the highly placed temporal lines, resulting in a very narrow minimum frontal breadth relative to the maximum frontal breadth (although the minimum breadth is average in absolute terms and the maximum breadth is large). This configuration likely reflects the powerful development of the chewing musculature, which is also evident in the structure of the mandible. The pronounced brow ridges and rather sloping forehead are likewise typical of Upper Paleolithic people. The shape of the upper margin of the temporal squama - strongly convex in the front but flattened behind and lacking a parietal notch - may be regarded as primitive, though it could also be described as “Bushmanoid,” since it occurs among San populations and on the skull from Fish Hoek. The overall facial form of Nazlet Khater 2 is relatively low and especially broad across the cheekbones, with a well-developed canine fossa and maxillary notch, while the broad upper jaw exhibits noticeable alveolar prognathism. Compared with many Upper Paleolithic and all ancient African skulls, Nazlet Khater 2 is distinguished by a moderately high face (despite its great breadth) and by very large, rounded, and relatively high eye orbits. Unusual for Africa is his mesorrhine nose - a nose of intermediate width - resulting from a not particularly wide nasal aperture combined with a very great nasal height. The nasal bones are equatorial: straight, nearly vertical, and rounded in cross-section. The alveolar process of the upper jaw is flattened in the front and bends markedly at the level of the canines, a distinctly archaic trait. In terms of mandibular features, Nazlet Khater 2 is fully anatomically modern, although the jaw is exceptionally large and robust, as is typical of the earliest Homo sapiens. (Antropogenez, S.V. Drobyshevsky, 2010)

Facial Reconstruction of a 37,000-Year-Old Man from Egypt In 1980, excavations of a hill near the village of Nazlet Khater in Upper Egypt uncovered two burials. The first skeleton was poorly preserved, but the second, located on the summit of the hill, survived almost intact - only the feet were missing. The grave was shallow and had been eroded by Nile flooding, causing the skull to become exposed on the surface. The skeleton of an adult male was found lying on his back, accompanied by a large flint axe. The Nazlet Khater 2 skeleton is one of the few complete human skeleton from the Early Upper Paleolithic of North Africa. The remains belonged to a man aged approximately 20-29 years who stood around 160 cm tall. Not far from the hill was a flint quarry where prehistoric people extracted raw material. Evidence of intensive mining activity includes trenches, shafts, and narrow tunnels no more than 50 cm high, apparently dug around the same period as the burials. The stone axe found in the Nazlet Khater 2 grave was probably used for quarrying, as identical tools have been discovered in the ancient mines. The skeletal pathologies are particularly revealing in this regard. Multiple injuries and degenerative changes in the spine and limbs indicate extremely heavy physical labor, typical of mining activities and the regular lifting of heavy loads. Severe arthritis of the cervical vertebrae suggests that this man habitually carried heavy burdens on his head or with the aid of a forehead strap, as some traditional peoples do today. Damage to the arms indicates extensive use of percussion tools, especially with the right hand. He also had healed fractures of the hands. Evidently, he began performing strenuous labor in adolescence, while his bones were still developing. Physically, Nazlet Khater 2 differs from other African and European Upper Paleolithic humans, although they share a number of archaic features. His primary morphological characteristics are clearly equatorial, resembling those of the Epipaleolithic inhabitants of Nubia as well as the South African remains from Springbok Flats and Kalomo, which were once considered very ancient (Pinhasi & Semal, 2000) but are now known to be much more recent. The large cranial vault of Nazlet Khater 2 is typical of Upper Paleolithic humans. The expansion of the braincase in its lower portion is particularly archaic, as are the highly placed temporal lines, resulting in a very narrow minimum frontal breadth relative to the maximum frontal breadth (although the minimum breadth is average in absolute terms and the maximum breadth is large). This configuration likely reflects the powerful development of the chewing musculature, which is also evident in the structure of the mandible. The pronounced brow ridges and rather sloping forehead are likewise typical of Upper Paleolithic people. The shape of the upper margin of the temporal squama - strongly convex in the front but flattened behind and lacking a parietal notch - may be regarded as primitive, though it could also be described as “Bushmanoid,” since it occurs among San populations and on the skull from Fish Hoek. The overall facial form of Nazlet Khater 2 is relatively low and especially broad across the cheekbones, with a well-developed canine fossa and maxillary notch, while the broad upper jaw exhibits noticeable alveolar prognathism. Compared with many Upper Paleolithic and all ancient African skulls, Nazlet Khater 2 is distinguished by a moderately high face (despite its great breadth) and by very large, rounded, and relatively high eye orbits. Unusual for Africa is his mesorrhine nose - a nose of intermediate width - resulting from a not particularly wide nasal aperture combined with a very great nasal height. The nasal bones are equatorial: straight, nearly vertical, and rounded in cross-section. The alveolar process of the upper jaw is flattened in the front and bends markedly at the level of the canines, a distinctly archaic trait. In terms of mandibular features, Nazlet Khater 2 is fully anatomically modern, although the jaw is exceptionally large and robust, as is typical of the earliest Homo sapiens. (Antropogenez, S.V. Drobyshevsky, 2010)

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Facial reconstruction of a 315,000-year-old man from Morocco The first discovery at the Jebel Irhoud site was made in 1961, when a remarkably complete skull of an archaic human was unearthed. Subsequent excavations revealed another cranial vault, the mandible of a child, and several additional bone fragments. The site has been dated multiple times, with estimates ranging from 30,000 to 190,000 years ago. By 2007, the accepted age was approximately 160,000 years. However, new analyses conducted by the same research team demonstrated that the Jebel Irhoud deposits are significantly older, dating between 240,000 ± 35,000 and 378,000 ± 30,000 years ago, with an average age of approximately 315,000 ± 34,000 years. The Jebel Irhoud individuals occupy an intermediate position between modern humans (including Upper Paleolithic Cro-Magnons) and more archaic groups such as Heidelberg humans, Neanderthals, and African Middle Pleistocene populations. This pattern is evident across nearly all studied anatomical features, including the skull, mandible, brain, and dentition. The occipital and temporal bones of Irhoud 1 retain several archaic characteristics, whereas the frontal bone exhibits more derived traits. The face of Jebel Irhoud 1 is essentially indistinguishable from that of modern humans and, in some respects, appears even more modern than that of certain Upper Paleolithic Homo sapiens specimens. The mandible displays a receding chin, although a very weak indication of chin prominence may be present. Considered in isolation, the jaw appears relatively archaic; however, in combination with the facial morphology, it does not seem particularly primitive. Viewed from a three-quarter angle, Irhoud 1 appears remarkably modern, while its archaic features become most apparent in profile. The cranial vault bones of Jebel Irhoud 1 are thick, and the vault itself is low and elongated. The forehead is low and receding, although less sloping than that of European Neanderthals. The brow ridge is massive, postorbital constriction is pronounced, and the occipital region exhibits a chignon-like morphology. The mandibular fossa of the temporal bone is moderately deep and spacious. The articular eminence is well developed, and the postglenoid process is large. The face is extremely high and broad. The upper face is relatively flattened, while alveolar prognathism is strongly expressed. The orbits are tall and square-shaped, and the nose is very broad. A canine fossa is absent, and the alveolar process is high. The teeth are large. The brain morphology resembles that of the Kabwe (Broken Hill) specimen. Cranial capacity has been estimated at 1,305–1,480 cm³. (Hublin et al. (2017), Richter et al. (2017), Antropogenez, S. Drobyshevski (2017)).

Facial reconstruction of a 315,000-year-old man from Morocco The first discovery at the Jebel Irhoud site was made in 1961, when a remarkably complete skull of an archaic human was unearthed. Subsequent excavations revealed another cranial vault, the mandible of a child, and several additional bone fragments. The site has been dated multiple times, with estimates ranging from 30,000 to 190,000 years ago. By 2007, the accepted age was approximately 160,000 years. However, new analyses conducted by the same research team demonstrated that the Jebel Irhoud deposits are significantly older, dating between 240,000 ± 35,000 and 378,000 ± 30,000 years ago, with an average age of approximately 315,000 ± 34,000 years. The Jebel Irhoud individuals occupy an intermediate position between modern humans (including Upper Paleolithic Cro-Magnons) and more archaic groups such as Heidelberg humans, Neanderthals, and African Middle Pleistocene populations. This pattern is evident across nearly all studied anatomical features, including the skull, mandible, brain, and dentition. The occipital and temporal bones of Irhoud 1 retain several archaic characteristics, whereas the frontal bone exhibits more derived traits. The face of Jebel Irhoud 1 is essentially indistinguishable from that of modern humans and, in some respects, appears even more modern than that of certain Upper Paleolithic Homo sapiens specimens. The mandible displays a receding chin, although a very weak indication of chin prominence may be present. Considered in isolation, the jaw appears relatively archaic; however, in combination with the facial morphology, it does not seem particularly primitive. Viewed from a three-quarter angle, Irhoud 1 appears remarkably modern, while its archaic features become most apparent in profile. The cranial vault bones of Jebel Irhoud 1 are thick, and the vault itself is low and elongated. The forehead is low and receding, although less sloping than that of European Neanderthals. The brow ridge is massive, postorbital constriction is pronounced, and the occipital region exhibits a chignon-like morphology. The mandibular fossa of the temporal bone is moderately deep and spacious. The articular eminence is well developed, and the postglenoid process is large. The face is extremely high and broad. The upper face is relatively flattened, while alveolar prognathism is strongly expressed. The orbits are tall and square-shaped, and the nose is very broad. A canine fossa is absent, and the alveolar process is high. The teeth are large. The brain morphology resembles that of the Kabwe (Broken Hill) specimen. Cranial capacity has been estimated at 1,305–1,480 cm³. (Hublin et al. (2017), Richter et al. (2017), Antropogenez, S. Drobyshevski (2017)).

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Facial reconstruction of a 4,500-year-old Ural Yamnaya/Tamarutkul man from the Orenburg Region A special place in the study of the Yamnaya culture is occupied by its Cis-Ural variant (Smirnov, 1965), one of whose principal characteristics is the high proportion of burials in a right-side position, as well as the greater quantity of copper tools found in the graves. Due to its geographical distribution, this variant is also referred to as the Ilek group (Morgunova & Kravtsov, 1994; Kuznetsov, 2010), on the basis of which a distinct Tamarutkul type was identified (Bogdanov, 2004). According to Morgunova (2011; 2014a), the origins of this group are local, representing the development of Yamnaya populations of the Volga-Ural interfluve that ultimately derived from the Khvalynsk Eneolithic culture. According to another interpretation, the Ilek group was closely related to the Poltavka population of the Volga region, with its origins connected to a North Caucasian impulse represented by the Novotitorovka group (Kuznetsov, 1996a, 2010). Other researchers have likewise traced a Caucasian component in the Tamarutkul culture (Mimokhod, 2009, pp. 160-164). Bogdanov (2004), on the other hand, proposed the reverse direction of influence, particularly suggesting an influence of the Cis-Ural population on populations of the North Caucasus. In contrast to the contemporaneous Early Poltavka population of the Volga region, the Tamarutkul population of the Cis-Urals represents a different cranial complex: mesomorphic, dolichocranial, and more strongly profiled, corresponding broadly to the Southeuropid steppe type (Khokhlov, 2017, p. 88; appendix, Tables B.32–33; text, Tables 29–30). As a hypothesis, it has been proposed that the appearance both in the Cis-Urals (Tamarutkul) and in the northwestern Black Sea region (Late Yamnaya) of groups with somewhat similar archaeological traditions-including burials in a contracted position on the side and populations characterized predominantly by a dolichocranial, mesomorphic southern Europid type-may be connected with the outward spread of related groups, such as the Novotitorovka/"Wagon Burial" cultural tradition, from the North Caucasus (Khokhlov, 2000, p. 315; 2013a, p. 259), (Khokhlov et al. 2024) Combat-related trauma is extremely rare in the preceding Eneolithic, with only one known case from Khvalynsk II, burial 13 (Khokhlov, 2010b, p. 418). In Yamnaya populations, trauma affected 21.7% of the sample, including potentially lethal injuries. Nasal fractures (which occurred in both sexes, at a ratio of approximately 3.5:1 (Khokhlov & Kitov, 2019, pp. 273–274)) were the most common and likely often resulted from everyday interpersonal violence. The higher trauma frequency among Early Bronze Age Volga-Ural pastoralists may reflect greater mobility and increased contact with other groups in frontier zones. In later kurgan cultures, particularly the Tamarutkul/Ilek group of the Southern Urals, trauma increased to 30.9%, with a greater variety of injuries. During the Middle Bronze Age, combat-related trauma became more prominent, especially among the Tamarutkul population of the Cis-Urals, where nasal fractures were relatively uncommon. Given the population's possible migrant origins (Khokhlov, 1998b; 2017), this may reflect competition between groups over access to the Kargaly copper mines. Overall, the Tamarutkul skulls were characterized as belonging to the Southeuropid type, which anthropologists have linked with the North Caucasian Novotitorovka culture. Although the Novotitorovka culture emerged within the broader Yamnaya cultural sphere, it morphologically resembles the preceding Maykop-Novosvobodnaya culture (Shevchenko, 1983, p. 84; Gei, 2000), likely due to the assimilation of the aforementioned cultural group. The reconstructed individual is characterized as having a relatively narrow face and a dolichocranial Europid morphology (Vasiliev, I. B.; Kuznetsov, P. F.; Turetski, M. A., 2000), with a large cranial length of 195 mm, a small cranial breadth of 133 mm, a medium bizygomatic breadth of 132 mm, a medium-large bigonial breadth of 104 mm, and a zygomaxillary angle of 122°

Facial reconstruction of a 4,500-year-old Ural Yamnaya/Tamarutkul man from the Orenburg Region A special place in the study of the Yamnaya culture is occupied by its Cis-Ural variant (Smirnov, 1965), one of whose principal characteristics is the high proportion of burials in a right-side position, as well as the greater quantity of copper tools found in the graves. Due to its geographical distribution, this variant is also referred to as the Ilek group (Morgunova & Kravtsov, 1994; Kuznetsov, 2010), on the basis of which a distinct Tamarutkul type was identified (Bogdanov, 2004). According to Morgunova (2011; 2014a), the origins of this group are local, representing the development of Yamnaya populations of the Volga-Ural interfluve that ultimately derived from the Khvalynsk Eneolithic culture. According to another interpretation, the Ilek group was closely related to the Poltavka population of the Volga region, with its origins connected to a North Caucasian impulse represented by the Novotitorovka group (Kuznetsov, 1996a, 2010). Other researchers have likewise traced a Caucasian component in the Tamarutkul culture (Mimokhod, 2009, pp. 160-164). Bogdanov (2004), on the other hand, proposed the reverse direction of influence, particularly suggesting an influence of the Cis-Ural population on populations of the North Caucasus. In contrast to the contemporaneous Early Poltavka population of the Volga region, the Tamarutkul population of the Cis-Urals represents a different cranial complex: mesomorphic, dolichocranial, and more strongly profiled, corresponding broadly to the Southeuropid steppe type (Khokhlov, 2017, p. 88; appendix, Tables B.32–33; text, Tables 29–30). As a hypothesis, it has been proposed that the appearance both in the Cis-Urals (Tamarutkul) and in the northwestern Black Sea region (Late Yamnaya) of groups with somewhat similar archaeological traditions-including burials in a contracted position on the side and populations characterized predominantly by a dolichocranial, mesomorphic southern Europid type-may be connected with the outward spread of related groups, such as the Novotitorovka/"Wagon Burial" cultural tradition, from the North Caucasus (Khokhlov, 2000, p. 315; 2013a, p. 259), (Khokhlov et al. 2024) Combat-related trauma is extremely rare in the preceding Eneolithic, with only one known case from Khvalynsk II, burial 13 (Khokhlov, 2010b, p. 418). In Yamnaya populations, trauma affected 21.7% of the sample, including potentially lethal injuries. Nasal fractures (which occurred in both sexes, at a ratio of approximately 3.5:1 (Khokhlov & Kitov, 2019, pp. 273–274)) were the most common and likely often resulted from everyday interpersonal violence. The higher trauma frequency among Early Bronze Age Volga-Ural pastoralists may reflect greater mobility and increased contact with other groups in frontier zones. In later kurgan cultures, particularly the Tamarutkul/Ilek group of the Southern Urals, trauma increased to 30.9%, with a greater variety of injuries. During the Middle Bronze Age, combat-related trauma became more prominent, especially among the Tamarutkul population of the Cis-Urals, where nasal fractures were relatively uncommon. Given the population's possible migrant origins (Khokhlov, 1998b; 2017), this may reflect competition between groups over access to the Kargaly copper mines. Overall, the Tamarutkul skulls were characterized as belonging to the Southeuropid type, which anthropologists have linked with the North Caucasian Novotitorovka culture. Although the Novotitorovka culture emerged within the broader Yamnaya cultural sphere, it morphologically resembles the preceding Maykop-Novosvobodnaya culture (Shevchenko, 1983, p. 84; Gei, 2000), likely due to the assimilation of the aforementioned cultural group. The reconstructed individual is characterized as having a relatively narrow face and a dolichocranial Europid morphology (Vasiliev, I. B.; Kuznetsov, P. F.; Turetski, M. A., 2000), with a large cranial length of 195 mm, a small cranial breadth of 133 mm, a medium bizygomatic breadth of 132 mm, a medium-large bigonial breadth of 104 mm, and a zygomaxillary angle of 122°

22,111 görüntüleme

Facial reconstructions of a 2,400-year-old man and a 1,200-year-old man from the same kurgan in Kazakhstan The Rakhat burial ground is located on a large floodplain terrace near the river of the same name, within the Enbekshikazakh District of the Almaty Region. It consists of several chains of kurgan groups oriented along a southwest-northeast axis. The main burial of the kurgan (number 3), dated to Saka period Iron Age, contained a man with a hyperdolichocephalic cranium characterized by a very small cranial breadth of 130 mm and a large cranial length of 186 mm. He had medium cheekbone breadth of 126 mm, low eye orbits, a narrow nose, and an overall small mandible. His estimated stature ranges from 169.1 cm to 174.3 cm. The intrusive (inlet) burial of the kurgan dates to the Early Medieval Turkic period. It contained a man with a mesocephalic cranium, with a very large cranial breadth of 149 mm and large length of 188 mm, wide cheekbone width of 144 mm, medium-tall eye orbits, a very wide nose, facial flattening, and a large mandible. His estimated stature ranges from 153.8 cm to 159.8 cm. Thus, an interesting fact is recorded in Kurgan No. 3 of the Rakhat burial ground: the two individuals discovered within it belong to different anthropological types. The lower individual (from the primary burial) displays characteristics common in the Bronze Age and less frequent in the Early Iron Age - a pronounced Europoid appearance. The upper individual (from the intrusive burial) exhibits a pronounced East Asian appearance characteristic of the medieval period. (Sergei Ivanov and Egor Kitov, 2018)

Facial reconstructions of a 2,400-year-old man and a 1,200-year-old man from the same kurgan in Kazakhstan The Rakhat burial ground is located on a large floodplain terrace near the river of the same name, within the Enbekshikazakh District of the Almaty Region. It consists of several chains of kurgan groups oriented along a southwest-northeast axis. The main burial of the kurgan (number 3), dated to Saka period Iron Age, contained a man with a hyperdolichocephalic cranium characterized by a very small cranial breadth of 130 mm and a large cranial length of 186 mm. He had medium cheekbone breadth of 126 mm, low eye orbits, a narrow nose, and an overall small mandible. His estimated stature ranges from 169.1 cm to 174.3 cm. The intrusive (inlet) burial of the kurgan dates to the Early Medieval Turkic period. It contained a man with a mesocephalic cranium, with a very large cranial breadth of 149 mm and large length of 188 mm, wide cheekbone width of 144 mm, medium-tall eye orbits, a very wide nose, facial flattening, and a large mandible. His estimated stature ranges from 153.8 cm to 159.8 cm. Thus, an interesting fact is recorded in Kurgan No. 3 of the Rakhat burial ground: the two individuals discovered within it belong to different anthropological types. The lower individual (from the primary burial) displays characteristics common in the Bronze Age and less frequent in the Early Iron Age - a pronounced Europoid appearance. The upper individual (from the intrusive burial) exhibits a pronounced East Asian appearance characteristic of the medieval period. (Sergei Ivanov and Egor Kitov, 2018)

309,536 görüntüleme

Facial reconstruction of a Merethic Era Atmoran from Saarthal Founded by Ysgramor, Saarthal was the first city of the Atmorans, who would later be known as Nords. After their arrival, the Atmorans lived peacefully with the local Falmer. However, fearing that the Atmoran expansion would surpass their own, the Falmer destroyed the city, and only Ysgramor and his two sons escaped the carnage. The destruction of the city was later avenged when Ysgramor returned with his famed warriors, the Five Hundred Companions. Several expeditions have been carried out by archaeologists from the College of Winterhold to study the ancient ruins of Saarthal. During these excavations, several cranial series were uncovered. Anthropologists from the College of Winterhold have noted increased hypermorphy in the ancient Atmorans relative to their modern Nord descendants, including larger brow ridges, much larger teeth, very wide bigonial and bicondylar widths, wider and taller faces, a more archaic low orbital shape, more defined upper facial relief, slightly wider nasal apertures, and slightly weaker chin protrusion. The skulls were predominantly dolichocephalic and very thick, but interestingly had relatively small mastoid processes. Later morphogenetic processes, including admixture with the Mer, and environmental factors such as a more agriculture-based lifestyle, played a role in the gracilization of the Atmorans. Among modern cranial series, the Nords of the Pale, Winterhold, and northern Eastmarch cluster closest to the Atmorans of Saarthal, along with some cranial series from Colovia. The reconstructed man, about 40 years old, stood around 190 cm tall and was massively built. He was found in the lower layers of Saarthal along with some Ancient Nord gear, including a full set of ancient Nord armor, an ancient Nord sword and an ancient Nord amulet with a One-Handed enchantment. Postcranial data shows magicka-related trauma, which was likely the cause of his demise.

Facial reconstruction of a Merethic Era Atmoran from Saarthal Founded by Ysgramor, Saarthal was the first city of the Atmorans, who would later be known as Nords. After their arrival, the Atmorans lived peacefully with the local Falmer. However, fearing that the Atmoran expansion would surpass their own, the Falmer destroyed the city, and only Ysgramor and his two sons escaped the carnage. The destruction of the city was later avenged when Ysgramor returned with his famed warriors, the Five Hundred Companions. Several expeditions have been carried out by archaeologists from the College of Winterhold to study the ancient ruins of Saarthal. During these excavations, several cranial series were uncovered. Anthropologists from the College of Winterhold have noted increased hypermorphy in the ancient Atmorans relative to their modern Nord descendants, including larger brow ridges, much larger teeth, very wide bigonial and bicondylar widths, wider and taller faces, a more archaic low orbital shape, more defined upper facial relief, slightly wider nasal apertures, and slightly weaker chin protrusion. The skulls were predominantly dolichocephalic and very thick, but interestingly had relatively small mastoid processes. Later morphogenetic processes, including admixture with the Mer, and environmental factors such as a more agriculture-based lifestyle, played a role in the gracilization of the Atmorans. Among modern cranial series, the Nords of the Pale, Winterhold, and northern Eastmarch cluster closest to the Atmorans of Saarthal, along with some cranial series from Colovia. The reconstructed man, about 40 years old, stood around 190 cm tall and was massively built. He was found in the lower layers of Saarthal along with some Ancient Nord gear, including a full set of ancient Nord armor, an ancient Nord sword and an ancient Nord amulet with a One-Handed enchantment. Postcranial data shows magicka-related trauma, which was likely the cause of his demise.

181,381 görüntüleme

Facial reconstruction based on skh001, a 6,400-year-old woman from Skhirat-Rouazi, Morocco The individual was buried in a supine position with slight rightward lateralization, oriented north–south. The head was in anterior and right lateral flexion, originally directed upward and slightly toward the northeast. The body was tightly arranged: upper limbs close to the torso, with the right forearm flexed toward the face and the left arm extended toward the pelvis. The lower limbs were strongly flexed (heels near the buttocks), likely due to constraints of the burial pit. At least four ceramic vessels were present in the burial: one complete vessel placed on the pelvis, with others intentionally broken and deposited around the abdominal and lumbar regions. Additional fragments in the thoracic area derive from these vessels. A pebble was found near the left elbow. The fill consisted of reddish silty sediment with localized gray-black deposits (possibly manganese or ash). She was approximately 158 cm tall and carried mtDNA haplogroup M1a1b. Her autosomal DNA was mainly composed of Levant_N-like and Natufian-like ancestry, with some, likely local, Iberomaurusian component.

Facial reconstruction based on skh001, a 6,400-year-old woman from Skhirat-Rouazi, Morocco The individual was buried in a supine position with slight rightward lateralization, oriented north–south. The head was in anterior and right lateral flexion, originally directed upward and slightly toward the northeast. The body was tightly arranged: upper limbs close to the torso, with the right forearm flexed toward the face and the left arm extended toward the pelvis. The lower limbs were strongly flexed (heels near the buttocks), likely due to constraints of the burial pit. At least four ceramic vessels were present in the burial: one complete vessel placed on the pelvis, with others intentionally broken and deposited around the abdominal and lumbar regions. Additional fragments in the thoracic area derive from these vessels. A pebble was found near the left elbow. The fill consisted of reddish silty sediment with localized gray-black deposits (possibly manganese or ash). She was approximately 158 cm tall and carried mtDNA haplogroup M1a1b. Her autosomal DNA was mainly composed of Levant_N-like and Natufian-like ancestry, with some, likely local, Iberomaurusian component.

159,767 görüntüleme

Facial reconstruction of a 10,000-year-old man from Iran Found at Ganj Dareh Tepe, a Neolithic site with some of the earliest evidence of goat domestication in the world. The individuals from Ganj Dareh belong to the Iran_N genetic cluster, and most carry Y-DNA haplogroup R2, which is associated with the dispersal of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry. This young adult was described by anthropologist Peter Lambert as follows: This individual is the third of the sarcophagus burial group and is complete except for several vertebrae and portions of the skull and pelvis. The mandible and both maxillae are well preserved. Overall, the large and robust musculature suggests that this is a male, whose age—estimated from epiphyseal fusions (Krogman, ’73)—is approximately 15–18 years at death... The third mandibular molars are partially erupted. Gray’s Anatomy (’77) gives an estimated age range of 18–25 years. The reconstructed cranium is complete except for the basal elements. The vault is artificially deformed and represents the best example of the Ganj Dareh deformation style. The teeth show deposits of salivary calculus in the anterior arcades, but no other pathology is present. Reconstruction commissioned by 𒁍𒊑 𒋗𒊑𒌍 Buri Šoreš 𓄂❤️☀️💚

Facial reconstruction of a 10,000-year-old man from Iran Found at Ganj Dareh Tepe, a Neolithic site with some of the earliest evidence of goat domestication in the world. The individuals from Ganj Dareh belong to the Iran_N genetic cluster, and most carry Y-DNA haplogroup R2, which is associated with the dispersal of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry. This young adult was described by anthropologist Peter Lambert as follows: This individual is the third of the sarcophagus burial group and is complete except for several vertebrae and portions of the skull and pelvis. The mandible and both maxillae are well preserved. Overall, the large and robust musculature suggests that this is a male, whose age—estimated from epiphyseal fusions (Krogman, ’73)—is approximately 15–18 years at death... The third mandibular molars are partially erupted. Gray’s Anatomy (’77) gives an estimated age range of 18–25 years. The reconstructed cranium is complete except for the basal elements. The vault is artificially deformed and represents the best example of the Ganj Dareh deformation style. The teeth show deposits of salivary calculus in the anterior arcades, but no other pathology is present. Reconstruction commissioned by 𒁍𒊑 𒋗𒊑𒌍 Buri Šoreš 𓄂❤️☀️💚

261,763 görüntüleme

Facial reconstruction of a 2,700-year-old Scythian/Saka from the Sokolovka site in Kazakhstan The Scythians, also known as the Saka, were an Iranic-speaking people who originated in the regions of Minusinsk, Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, and Xinjiang. The male Scythian/Saka skulls of Kazakhstan are characterized by medium longitudinal and transverse diameters, giving a cranial index of 80.2, which lies at the lower boundary of brachycrany. The skull height is low (131.6 mm), and the forehead is relatively wide (99.6 mm) and somewhat sloping, with a more pronounced than average glabella and superciliary arches. The face is broad (138.8 mm), of medium height (71.4 mm), and moderately projecting in the horizontal plane (nasomalar angle 141.8°, zygomaxillary angle 129.8°), with shallow canine fossae, low orbits, and a medium-wide, protruding nose (nasal index 50.6; nasal bone angle 29.5°). Female skulls, accounting for sexual dimorphism, show the same general traits. The anthropological type of the Sakas of Kazakhstan derives from the Andronovo population that occupied much of the region during the Bronze Age. Their slightly higher facial height compared to typical Andronovo skulls, the lower cranial vault, and the somewhat less projecting nose reflect East Asian admixture, which had already manifested itself in the Saka period. The skulls (both male and female) from Sokolovka in northern Kazakhstan belong to a clearly defined Europoid type. (Ginzburg & Trofimova, 1972)

Facial reconstruction of a 2,700-year-old Scythian/Saka from the Sokolovka site in Kazakhstan The Scythians, also known as the Saka, were an Iranic-speaking people who originated in the regions of Minusinsk, Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, and Xinjiang. The male Scythian/Saka skulls of Kazakhstan are characterized by medium longitudinal and transverse diameters, giving a cranial index of 80.2, which lies at the lower boundary of brachycrany. The skull height is low (131.6 mm), and the forehead is relatively wide (99.6 mm) and somewhat sloping, with a more pronounced than average glabella and superciliary arches. The face is broad (138.8 mm), of medium height (71.4 mm), and moderately projecting in the horizontal plane (nasomalar angle 141.8°, zygomaxillary angle 129.8°), with shallow canine fossae, low orbits, and a medium-wide, protruding nose (nasal index 50.6; nasal bone angle 29.5°). Female skulls, accounting for sexual dimorphism, show the same general traits. The anthropological type of the Sakas of Kazakhstan derives from the Andronovo population that occupied much of the region during the Bronze Age. Their slightly higher facial height compared to typical Andronovo skulls, the lower cranial vault, and the somewhat less projecting nose reflect East Asian admixture, which had already manifested itself in the Saka period. The skulls (both male and female) from Sokolovka in northern Kazakhstan belong to a clearly defined Europoid type. (Ginzburg & Trofimova, 1972)

251,684 görüntüleme

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Facial reconstructions of 14,000-year-old Oberkassel WHGs The Magdalenian culture, which followed the Solutrean, dates to the end of the Ice Age. Initially, the climate was cold and humid, resembling modern tundra, with mammoths, reindeer, musk oxen, hares, and ptarmigans. During the Middle Magdalenian, conditions became colder and drier as steppe expanded northward. Mammoths disappeared, reindeer retreated north, and horses, saiga antelopes, jerboas, and Asiatic wild asses became the dominant fauna. People increasingly occupied caves, while polychrome cave art reached its peak at sites such as Altamira and Font-de-Gaume. Flint tools became more specialized, serving mainly as components of composite implements, while bone technology flourished with the production of harpoons, spear points, needles, and fishing gear. The diversity of tools reflects growing craft specialization, organized hunting, and increasingly complex social organization. In 1914, two Magdalenian skeletons - a 40-year-old man and a 20-year-old woman - were discovered at Oberkassel near Bonn, Germany. Buried about one meter apart, both had been covered in red ochre and capped with basalt slabs. Animal bones and carved bone artifacts accompanied the burials, including a polished bone spatula with a carved predator-head handle and carved horse-head ornaments. Although direct descendants of the Cro-Magnons, both individuals were short but strongly built. The man was particularly robust, with a powerful chest and broad shoulders. His height was only slightly over 1.60 m, while the woman was even shorter, standing at approximately 1.55 m. (Gerasimov 1955) The anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov described the Oberkassel man as follows: The Oberkassel man had a very large, massive, elongated skull, with a cranial length of 198 mm, a breadth of 142 mm, and an exceptionally broad cheekbone width of 155 mm. His face was large, broad, and pentagonal, with massive cheekbones, a narrow forehead, a strong lower jaw, a broad projecting chin, and a narrow, high, protruding nose. His orbits were rectangular with prominent brow ridges. It is evident that he was exceptionally strong and undoubtedly handsome in a rugged, masculine way. As a typical Europoid, he almost certainly had a thick beard and mustache, along with straight or slightly wavy hair. The Oberkassel woman is described by Mikhail Gerasimov as follows: Her skull was large and massive, with well-developed relief. It measured 184 mm in length, 132 mm in width, and 131 mm in cheekbone breadth. The brow ridges were well developed, while the nasal bones were large and broad, with only weakly expressed nasal prominences. The occipital bone was broad and almost without curvature. The face was pentagonal, broad, and relatively high, with a massive lower jaw, a broad strongly projecting nose, a slightly prognathic alveolar region, and a projecting chin. The orbits were rectangular with prominent upper margins. Gerasimov noted that the Oberkassel woman lacked typical Cro-Magnon features. Compared with the man, her skull was lighter and less massive. His reconstruction showed some similarities to the Cro-Magnon woman, such as a sloping forehead and deep-set eyes, but differed in having a broader, shorter nose, less facial projection, and a weaker chin. While the Oberkassel man showed more exaggerated facial proportions, the woman retained more ancestral traits. Observations of Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic skulls in Europe show that some exhibit facial flattening as pronounced as that of the most strongly expressed modern Mongolid populations, affecting both the orbital and subnasal regions. The Oberkassel male and female are notable examples: their nasomalar angles measure 143° and 146°, and their zygomaxillary angles 137° and 133°, respectively. Both the absolute values and the relationship between these angles indicate a "harmonious" or "complete" degree of facial flattening comparable to that seen in the most pronounced modern Mongolid populations (V. P. Yakimov, 1956, 1960; I. I. Gokhman, 1958). The Oberkassel individuals were short but robust and, according to Gerasimov, were neither primitive nor unattractive. Their short stature, like that of other late Cro-Magnons, was attributed to the harsh conditions of the Magdalenian period. The Oberkassel Man carried Y-DNA haplogroup I2-V4921 and mtDNA haplogroup U5b1. The Oberkassel Woman shared the same mtDNA haplogroup (Posth et al 2023).
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Facial reconstructions of 14,000-year-old Oberkassel WHGs The Magdalenian culture, which followed the Solutrean, dates to the end of the Ice Age. Initially, the climate was cold and humid, resembling modern tundra, with mammoths, reindeer, musk oxen, hares, and ptarmigans. During the Middle Magdalenian, conditions became colder and drier as steppe expanded northward. Mammoths disappeared, reindeer retreated north, and horses, saiga antelopes, jerboas, and Asiatic wild asses became the dominant fauna. People increasingly occupied caves, while polychrome cave art reached its peak at sites such as Altamira and Font-de-Gaume. Flint tools became more specialized, serving mainly as components of composite implements, while bone technology flourished with the production of harpoons, spear points, needles, and fishing gear. The diversity of tools reflects growing craft specialization, organized hunting, and increasingly complex social organization. In 1914, two Magdalenian skeletons - a 40-year-old man and a 20-year-old woman - were discovered at Oberkassel near Bonn, Germany. Buried about one meter apart, both had been covered in red ochre and capped with basalt slabs. Animal bones and carved bone artifacts accompanied the burials, including a polished bone spatula with a carved predator-head handle and carved horse-head ornaments. Although direct descendants of the Cro-Magnons, both individuals were short but strongly built. The man was particularly robust, with a powerful chest and broad shoulders. His height was only slightly over 1.60 m, while the woman was even shorter, standing at approximately 1.55 m. (Gerasimov 1955) The anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov described the Oberkassel man as follows: The Oberkassel man had a very large, massive, elongated skull, with a cranial length of 198 mm, a breadth of 142 mm, and an exceptionally broad cheekbone width of 155 mm. His face was large, broad, and pentagonal, with massive cheekbones, a narrow forehead, a strong lower jaw, a broad projecting chin, and a narrow, high, protruding nose. His orbits were rectangular with prominent brow ridges. It is evident that he was exceptionally strong and undoubtedly handsome in a rugged, masculine way. As a typical Europoid, he almost certainly had a thick beard and mustache, along with straight or slightly wavy hair. The Oberkassel woman is described by Mikhail Gerasimov as follows: Her skull was large and massive, with well-developed relief. It measured 184 mm in length, 132 mm in width, and 131 mm in cheekbone breadth. The brow ridges were well developed, while the nasal bones were large and broad, with only weakly expressed nasal prominences. The occipital bone was broad and almost without curvature. The face was pentagonal, broad, and relatively high, with a massive lower jaw, a broad strongly projecting nose, a slightly prognathic alveolar region, and a projecting chin. The orbits were rectangular with prominent upper margins. Gerasimov noted that the Oberkassel woman lacked typical Cro-Magnon features. Compared with the man, her skull was lighter and less massive. His reconstruction showed some similarities to the Cro-Magnon woman, such as a sloping forehead and deep-set eyes, but differed in having a broader, shorter nose, less facial projection, and a weaker chin. While the Oberkassel man showed more exaggerated facial proportions, the woman retained more ancestral traits. Observations of Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic skulls in Europe show that some exhibit facial flattening as pronounced as that of the most strongly expressed modern Mongolid populations, affecting both the orbital and subnasal regions. The Oberkassel male and female are notable examples: their nasomalar angles measure 143° and 146°, and their zygomaxillary angles 137° and 133°, respectively. Both the absolute values and the relationship between these angles indicate a "harmonious" or "complete" degree of facial flattening comparable to that seen in the most pronounced modern Mongolid populations (V. P. Yakimov, 1956, 1960; I. I. Gokhman, 1958). The Oberkassel individuals were short but robust and, according to Gerasimov, were neither primitive nor unattractive. Their short stature, like that of other late Cro-Magnons, was attributed to the harsh conditions of the Magdalenian period. The Oberkassel Man carried Y-DNA haplogroup I2-V4921 and mtDNA haplogroup U5b1. The Oberkassel Woman shared the same mtDNA haplogroup (Posth et al 2023).

Ancestral Whispers

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Facial reconstructions of three 2,500-year-old Scythians from the Dogehe-Baary II site in Tuva The Scythians, also known as the Saka, were an Iranic-speaking people who originated in the regions of Minusinsk, the Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, and Xinjiang. Dogehe-Baary II is located on the right bank of the Biy-Khem (Bolshoy Yenisey), 5 km upstream from its confluence with the Kaa-Khem, and 8 km north of Kyzyl. It belongs to the early stage of the Scythian Uyuk-Sagly culture (6th–4th century BC). The site was excavated between 1990 and 2000 by the Central Asian Expedition from the St. Petersburg Institute for Cultural and Natural Legacy, led by K.V. Chugunov (Chugunov, 1994, 1996, 1999a, 2001, 2007; Chugunov, 1998). Most Uyuk-Sagly males carry either R1a-PH1397 or Q1b-L330. Physically, they differed somewhat from earlier nomads in the region. Their skulls were generally longer in shape, and their faces were narrower, though still fairly tall. Their noses tended to project more and had more defined shape, suggesting a shift in facial structure compared to earlier groups. Overall, men and women looked more similar to each other than in some earlier populations, where differences between the sexes were stronger. (T.A. Chikisheva, 2008) The men, on average, had a medium-large cranial length/width/cheek width of 186/141/135 mm, and large nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles of 139.7° and 134°. The women, on average, had a medium-large cranial length/width/cheek width of 180/140/125 mm, and large nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles of 143° and 136°. At the Dogehe-Baary burial, an individual with likely pituitary dwarfism was found. Standing about 127 cm tall, he likely had a limping gait, a barrel-shaped chest, scoliosis, chronic joint pain, reduced mobility, and obesity. His skull bears healed injuries, indicating repeated violence, and he may have died from a traumatic brain injury. Despite these challenges, he lived to at least 45 years of age - an exceptional lifespan for someone with pituitary dwarfism complicated by epiphyseal dysplasia, even by modern standards (Aristova, E.S., Chikisheva, T.A., Seidman, A.M. et al., 2006).
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Facial reconstructions of three 2,500-year-old Scythians from the Dogehe-Baary II site in Tuva The Scythians, also known as the Saka, were an Iranic-speaking people who originated in the regions of Minusinsk, the Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, and Xinjiang. Dogehe-Baary II is located on the right bank of the Biy-Khem (Bolshoy Yenisey), 5 km upstream from its confluence with the Kaa-Khem, and 8 km north of Kyzyl. It belongs to the early stage of the Scythian Uyuk-Sagly culture (6th–4th century BC). The site was excavated between 1990 and 2000 by the Central Asian Expedition from the St. Petersburg Institute for Cultural and Natural Legacy, led by K.V. Chugunov (Chugunov, 1994, 1996, 1999a, 2001, 2007; Chugunov, 1998). Most Uyuk-Sagly males carry either R1a-PH1397 or Q1b-L330. Physically, they differed somewhat from earlier nomads in the region. Their skulls were generally longer in shape, and their faces were narrower, though still fairly tall. Their noses tended to project more and had more defined shape, suggesting a shift in facial structure compared to earlier groups. Overall, men and women looked more similar to each other than in some earlier populations, where differences between the sexes were stronger. (T.A. Chikisheva, 2008) The men, on average, had a medium-large cranial length/width/cheek width of 186/141/135 mm, and large nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles of 139.7° and 134°. The women, on average, had a medium-large cranial length/width/cheek width of 180/140/125 mm, and large nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles of 143° and 136°. At the Dogehe-Baary burial, an individual with likely pituitary dwarfism was found. Standing about 127 cm tall, he likely had a limping gait, a barrel-shaped chest, scoliosis, chronic joint pain, reduced mobility, and obesity. His skull bears healed injuries, indicating repeated violence, and he may have died from a traumatic brain injury. Despite these challenges, he lived to at least 45 years of age - an exceptional lifespan for someone with pituitary dwarfism complicated by epiphyseal dysplasia, even by modern standards (Aristova, E.S., Chikisheva, T.A., Seidman, A.M. et al., 2006).

Ancestral Whispers

38,379 görüntüleme • 2 ay önce

Reconstructions based on 6,300-year-old early Proto-Indo-European elites from the Lower Don (Krivyanski I11828/I31755, Y-DNA J-M319, mtDNA T2a1b), and from Hungary—the first known horse rider (Csongrád I5124, Y-DNA Q-Y6802, mtDNA K1b2) The Krivyanski individual was buried in a round pit with a concave bottom, its floor covered in red ochre. The adult male lay on his back with knees raised, skull oriented NNE; the left arm was extended and the left thigh disturbed by a later grave cut. The burial position, grave goods, and date are characteristic of the Sredny Stog culture. The inventory included a retouched flint blade (its broken tip found deeper in the grave), two bifacial projectile points, and a bifacial axe-shaped blank. Additional displaced finds included another blade and the missing blade tip. The tools are patinated brown to gray flint with fine retouch and use-wear. He carried Y-haplogroup J2a (J-M319), linked to Caucasus populations such as the Maikop culture and Aknashen, but showed only older Mesolithic CHG ancestry. His mtDNA (T2a1b) was common among steppe groups. On PCA, he clustered close to the Yamnaya culture (Lazaridis et al. 2025). The Csongrád individual from Hungary, attributed to the Suvorovo culture, represents one of the earliest known cases showing osteological evidence consistent with riding, well before the classic Yamnaya horizon. He exhibited clear skeletal markers of habitual horseback riding, especially in the lower trunk and pelvic region, consistent with “horseman syndrome” (Trautmann et al. 2023). He carried Y-haplogroup Q-Y6802, linked to Khvalynsk. Autosomally, he was primarily Steppe Eneolithic, with a Khvalynsk grandparent—likely the source of his Y-DNA (Lazaridis et al. 2025). Culturally, some Steppe Eneolithic groups such as Berezhnevka are also attributed to the Khvalynsk culture (Khokhlov A.A., Gromov A.V., Grigoriev A.P., Kazarnitsky A.A., Kapinus Yu.O., Kitov E.P., 2024). In addition, horses were sacrificed and buried alongside cattle, sheep/goats, and humans at Khvalynsk, where no obviously wild mammals were included. Polished stone mace-heads shaped like horse heads proliferated across the steppes and spread into the Lower Danube valley between 4400–4000 BCE. Eneolithic horses, even if more skittish than modern ones, may have been ridden in quiet settings such as herding, allowing a mounted shepherd to oversee three times more sheep than a pedestrian one, producing a surplus useful for hosting feasts (Lazaridis et al. 2025). He is depicted with a “composite sword” from a related Giurgiulești burial in Moldova, which belonged to another Early Proto-Indo-European elite individual with Q1a Y-DNA (Blagoje Govedarica and Igor Manzura, Eurasia Antiqua 22, 2016 [2019]). The two individuals belonged to the Protoeuropoid type, a robust type that was widespread among the Ukr_N/Dnieper–Donets/Mariupol culture. This type is also documented in the early phase of the Rakushechny Yar culture in the Lower Don. This culture showed some similarities with the Mariupol culture, but also distinct differences, such as the absence of ochre (T.D. Balanovskaya, 1972, “Paleolithic and Neolithic of the USSR,” Volume 7). Samples from north of Rakushechny Yar, in the Middle Don (e.g., Golubaya Krinitsa, attributed to the Mariupol culture), show a substantial increase in CHG ancestry. This may indicate that the Neolithic Lower Don Rakushechny Yar culture (often linked by archaeologists to the Caucasus) was a possible source of CHG ancestry in Proto-Indo-Europeans, contributing, alongside the Dnieper-Donets/Mariupol culture, to the Protoeuropoid strain in early Steppe group, as well as to the majority of Proto-Indo-European ancestry. The migration of this Don population to the North Caucasus foothills, where they mixed with Mesopotamian-derived Caucasus farmers at Nalchik and its surroundings, and then to the Volga, where they mixed with local EHGs of the Ancienturalic strain, resulted in the Steppe Eneolithic proper genetic profile, which, after returning to the Don, formed the Proto-Indo-European Sredny Stog culture.
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Reconstructions based on 6,300-year-old early Proto-Indo-European elites from the Lower Don (Krivyanski I11828/I31755, Y-DNA J-M319, mtDNA T2a1b), and from Hungary—the first known horse rider (Csongrád I5124, Y-DNA Q-Y6802, mtDNA K1b2) The Krivyanski individual was buried in a round pit with a concave bottom, its floor covered in red ochre. The adult male lay on his back with knees raised, skull oriented NNE; the left arm was extended and the left thigh disturbed by a later grave cut. The burial position, grave goods, and date are characteristic of the Sredny Stog culture. The inventory included a retouched flint blade (its broken tip found deeper in the grave), two bifacial projectile points, and a bifacial axe-shaped blank. Additional displaced finds included another blade and the missing blade tip. The tools are patinated brown to gray flint with fine retouch and use-wear. He carried Y-haplogroup J2a (J-M319), linked to Caucasus populations such as the Maikop culture and Aknashen, but showed only older Mesolithic CHG ancestry. His mtDNA (T2a1b) was common among steppe groups. On PCA, he clustered close to the Yamnaya culture (Lazaridis et al. 2025). The Csongrád individual from Hungary, attributed to the Suvorovo culture, represents one of the earliest known cases showing osteological evidence consistent with riding, well before the classic Yamnaya horizon. He exhibited clear skeletal markers of habitual horseback riding, especially in the lower trunk and pelvic region, consistent with “horseman syndrome” (Trautmann et al. 2023). He carried Y-haplogroup Q-Y6802, linked to Khvalynsk. Autosomally, he was primarily Steppe Eneolithic, with a Khvalynsk grandparent—likely the source of his Y-DNA (Lazaridis et al. 2025). Culturally, some Steppe Eneolithic groups such as Berezhnevka are also attributed to the Khvalynsk culture (Khokhlov A.A., Gromov A.V., Grigoriev A.P., Kazarnitsky A.A., Kapinus Yu.O., Kitov E.P., 2024). In addition, horses were sacrificed and buried alongside cattle, sheep/goats, and humans at Khvalynsk, where no obviously wild mammals were included. Polished stone mace-heads shaped like horse heads proliferated across the steppes and spread into the Lower Danube valley between 4400–4000 BCE. Eneolithic horses, even if more skittish than modern ones, may have been ridden in quiet settings such as herding, allowing a mounted shepherd to oversee three times more sheep than a pedestrian one, producing a surplus useful for hosting feasts (Lazaridis et al. 2025). He is depicted with a “composite sword” from a related Giurgiulești burial in Moldova, which belonged to another Early Proto-Indo-European elite individual with Q1a Y-DNA (Blagoje Govedarica and Igor Manzura, Eurasia Antiqua 22, 2016 [2019]). The two individuals belonged to the Protoeuropoid type, a robust type that was widespread among the Ukr_N/Dnieper–Donets/Mariupol culture. This type is also documented in the early phase of the Rakushechny Yar culture in the Lower Don. This culture showed some similarities with the Mariupol culture, but also distinct differences, such as the absence of ochre (T.D. Balanovskaya, 1972, “Paleolithic and Neolithic of the USSR,” Volume 7). Samples from north of Rakushechny Yar, in the Middle Don (e.g., Golubaya Krinitsa, attributed to the Mariupol culture), show a substantial increase in CHG ancestry. This may indicate that the Neolithic Lower Don Rakushechny Yar culture (often linked by archaeologists to the Caucasus) was a possible source of CHG ancestry in Proto-Indo-Europeans, contributing, alongside the Dnieper-Donets/Mariupol culture, to the Protoeuropoid strain in early Steppe group, as well as to the majority of Proto-Indo-European ancestry. The migration of this Don population to the North Caucasus foothills, where they mixed with Mesopotamian-derived Caucasus farmers at Nalchik and its surroundings, and then to the Volga, where they mixed with local EHGs of the Ancienturalic strain, resulted in the Steppe Eneolithic proper genetic profile, which, after returning to the Don, formed the Proto-Indo-European Sredny Stog culture.

Ancestral Whispers

52,184 görüntüleme • 4 ay önce

Facial reconstructions of 2,700-year-old Hurro-Urartian women from Van and Urmia The Hurro-Urartians were an ancient people who inhabited parts of Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Zagros Mountains. The Urartian individual was a noblewoman from Chavushtepe in eastern Turkey, also known as Sardurihinili. The site is located approximately 25 kilometers southeast of Van. Sardurihinili consists of fortification walls and the remains of an Urartian royal palace, built between 764 and 735 BC during the reign of King Sarduri II, at the height of the Urartian Empire's power. According to Assyrian sources from the 9th–8th centuries BC, the state of Urartu gradually emerged in the Armenian Highlands. Early texts mention the "lands of Uruatri," a tribal confederation that resisted Assyrian expansion and was linked to the Hurrians and Subarians. Urartu was a vast but ethnically diverse state that united many peoples by force; the Urartians themselves likely constituted only the ruling elite. During the Iron Age, the Urartians became a major regional power. The territory of the Kingdom of Urartu encompassed parts of present-day Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Armenia. They were closely related to the Hurrians and spoke a language belonging to the same family. The Urartians were a sophisticated people, renowned for their craftsmanship, military prowess, and durable fortifications that have withstood the test of time. Urartu was also noted for its military campaigns against neighboring states. The second individual, also known as "SK59", was found in Hasanlu, an archaeological site of an ancient city located in northwestern Iran, in the province of West Azerbaijan, just south of Lake Urmia. The settlement was likely associated with the Mannaeans, a people inhabiting the region who likely spoke a Hurrian language. The site is best known for its catastrophic destruction. At the end of the 9th century BC, Hasanlu was violently sacked and burned, preserving a single moment in time much like Pompeii. Buildings, artifacts, and even human remains were sealed beneath layers of ash and collapsed debris. The attackers were most likely the Urartians. Excavations uncovered the remains of more than 285 people, many of whom were killed during the assault or executed afterward. Several bodies showed signs of mutilation, while the positions of others revealed desperate attempts to escape. Among the thousands of objects discovered in situ were weapons, ornaments, and household items, all abandoned amid the chaos. This destruction layer is one of the most important archaeological contexts of the early Iron Age Near East. Following the devastation, the city's High Mound was repurposed as the site of a Urartian fortress. Reconstructions commissioned by 𒁍𒊑 𒋗𒊑𒌍 Buri Šoreš 𓄂❤️☀️💚
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Facial reconstructions of 2,700-year-old Hurro-Urartian women from Van and Urmia The Hurro-Urartians were an ancient people who inhabited parts of Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Zagros Mountains. The Urartian individual was a noblewoman from Chavushtepe in eastern Turkey, also known as Sardurihinili. The site is located approximately 25 kilometers southeast of Van. Sardurihinili consists of fortification walls and the remains of an Urartian royal palace, built between 764 and 735 BC during the reign of King Sarduri II, at the height of the Urartian Empire's power. According to Assyrian sources from the 9th–8th centuries BC, the state of Urartu gradually emerged in the Armenian Highlands. Early texts mention the "lands of Uruatri," a tribal confederation that resisted Assyrian expansion and was linked to the Hurrians and Subarians. Urartu was a vast but ethnically diverse state that united many peoples by force; the Urartians themselves likely constituted only the ruling elite. During the Iron Age, the Urartians became a major regional power. The territory of the Kingdom of Urartu encompassed parts of present-day Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Armenia. They were closely related to the Hurrians and spoke a language belonging to the same family. The Urartians were a sophisticated people, renowned for their craftsmanship, military prowess, and durable fortifications that have withstood the test of time. Urartu was also noted for its military campaigns against neighboring states. The second individual, also known as "SK59", was found in Hasanlu, an archaeological site of an ancient city located in northwestern Iran, in the province of West Azerbaijan, just south of Lake Urmia. The settlement was likely associated with the Mannaeans, a people inhabiting the region who likely spoke a Hurrian language. The site is best known for its catastrophic destruction. At the end of the 9th century BC, Hasanlu was violently sacked and burned, preserving a single moment in time much like Pompeii. Buildings, artifacts, and even human remains were sealed beneath layers of ash and collapsed debris. The attackers were most likely the Urartians. Excavations uncovered the remains of more than 285 people, many of whom were killed during the assault or executed afterward. Several bodies showed signs of mutilation, while the positions of others revealed desperate attempts to escape. Among the thousands of objects discovered in situ were weapons, ornaments, and household items, all abandoned amid the chaos. This destruction layer is one of the most important archaeological contexts of the early Iron Age Near East. Following the devastation, the city's High Mound was repurposed as the site of a Urartian fortress. Reconstructions commissioned by 𒁍𒊑 𒋗𒊑𒌍 Buri Šoreš 𓄂❤️☀️💚

Ancestral Whispers

29,610 görüntüleme • 2 ay önce

Facial reconstructions of Iron Age Koban culture individuals from Georgia, Ossetia, and Ingushetia The Koban culture was a major Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age culture of the Central Caucasus, renowned for its advanced bronze and iron metallurgy and craftsmanship. The Koban culture was divided into three regional variants: central, western, and eastern. The western variant became increasingly syncretic with Post-Dolmen Horizon and Proto-Maeotian groups associated with the Northwest Caucasians, while the eastern variant interacted closely with the Kayakent-Kharachoy/Zandak culture, possibly linked to the ancestors of Nakh-speaking peoples. The language of the Koban population remains unknown. Some scholars, including Valentina Ivanovna Kozenkova, have proposed a Kartvelian affiliation based on the culture's origins in the Great Liakhvi Basin (such as the site of Tlia in Georgia, the prototypical and one of the longest-inhabited Koban site, which has archaeological parallels with the even older site of Brili to the west), although no direct linguistic evidence has survived. Genetic studies reveal high levels of CHG ancestry and a predominance of Y-DNA haplogroup G2a1 within the main Koban genetic cluster. Similar genetic profiles are found among populations associated with the Late Bronze Age expansion of Kartvelian-speaking groups into eastern Georgia. Together with archaeological parallels, particularly similarities between Colchian and Koban axe forms, this evidence supports a possible Kartvelian connection. The Koban population maintained extensive contacts with neighboring societies. To the south, they interacted with tribes of the Colchian cultural-historical sphere, including groups inhabiting present-day Svaneti. To the north, they engaged with the Scytho-Cimmerian world. Anthropologically, the Kobanians are characterized by a relatively homogeneous Europoid morphology, including dolichocrany, a narrow face, low nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles, and a strongly projecting, narrow nose.
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Facial reconstructions of Iron Age Koban culture individuals from Georgia, Ossetia, and Ingushetia The Koban culture was a major Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age culture of the Central Caucasus, renowned for its advanced bronze and iron metallurgy and craftsmanship. The Koban culture was divided into three regional variants: central, western, and eastern. The western variant became increasingly syncretic with Post-Dolmen Horizon and Proto-Maeotian groups associated with the Northwest Caucasians, while the eastern variant interacted closely with the Kayakent-Kharachoy/Zandak culture, possibly linked to the ancestors of Nakh-speaking peoples. The language of the Koban population remains unknown. Some scholars, including Valentina Ivanovna Kozenkova, have proposed a Kartvelian affiliation based on the culture's origins in the Great Liakhvi Basin (such as the site of Tlia in Georgia, the prototypical and one of the longest-inhabited Koban site, which has archaeological parallels with the even older site of Brili to the west), although no direct linguistic evidence has survived. Genetic studies reveal high levels of CHG ancestry and a predominance of Y-DNA haplogroup G2a1 within the main Koban genetic cluster. Similar genetic profiles are found among populations associated with the Late Bronze Age expansion of Kartvelian-speaking groups into eastern Georgia. Together with archaeological parallels, particularly similarities between Colchian and Koban axe forms, this evidence supports a possible Kartvelian connection. The Koban population maintained extensive contacts with neighboring societies. To the south, they interacted with tribes of the Colchian cultural-historical sphere, including groups inhabiting present-day Svaneti. To the north, they engaged with the Scytho-Cimmerian world. Anthropologically, the Kobanians are characterized by a relatively homogeneous Europoid morphology, including dolichocrany, a narrow face, low nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles, and a strongly projecting, narrow nose.

Ancestral Whispers

25,998 görüntüleme • 2 ay önce

Facial reconstructions of 2,500-year-old Maeotians from Northwest Caucasus The Maeotians and related tribes such as the Sindi and Kerketi were Northwest Caucasian peoples ancestral to the modern Circassians, Abkhazians, Abazins, and Ubykh. They developed from the Proto-Maeotian culture of Krasnodar - likely a syncretism of the Post-Dolmen Horizon with the Koban culture. The Maeotians played a role in the politics of the Bosporan Kingdom, and were tightly knit with the Scytho-Sarmatian world. The male was buried in the Tsemdolina necropolis in Krasnodar, which contained elite burials of the local administrative and military aristocracy who oversaw the Bosporan presence on the Abrau Peninsula. The site yielded numerous Scythian-style bronze artifacts, including zoomorphic pieces, and featured large underground pit-type tombs with horse burials. Horse burials were widespread in the Iron Age Caucasus, a custom either introduced by Scytho-Cimmerians or developed locally, and persisted long after disappearing in the western Steppe. This practice helps distinguish Maeotians from the later Iranic Steppe nomads. He is depicted with a bronze cuirass bearing the Gorgon Medusa, found in a Maeotian kurgan of the Kuban steppe, Elizavetsky burial ground. Although often viewed as a Greek motif, the golden gorgoneion from the Ulyap sanctuary suggests a local interpretation. Its resemblance to the Chechen and Ingush goddess Tusholi, worshiped as a fearsome mask, may indicate that the Maeotians saw the gorgoneion as a form of the Great Goddess. Among Caucasian peoples, including the Maeotians, who practiced ritual decapitation and venerated human heads, the gorgoneion likely carried additional cultic significance. The woman was buried at Lobanovaya Shchel, an Iron Age cemetery 9.9 km west of Abrau-Dyurso. The community practiced stone-cist burials that continue Bronze Age funerary traditions. Lobanovaya Shchel contained iron weapons, including spearheads and knives; locally made pottery alongside imported vessels and diverse ornaments including bronze sinusoidal pendants, torcs, signet rings, silver lunula pendants, glass, jet, and bone beads, and cowrie-shell pendants; and tools such as iron knives, an awl, a bronze needle, and ceramic and lead spindle whorls. She is depicted with a headdress associated with finds from the Karagodeuashhe kurgan, which reflects a high-status Maeotian burial tradition. In such elite graves, the deceased was placed in a prepared multi-chamber stone tomb, accompanied by ceremonial attire, weapons, a funerary wagon with horses, and additional horse sacrifice in a nearby dromos, with the chieftain and his wife buried in separate chambers.
0:28
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Facial reconstructions of 2,500-year-old Maeotians from Northwest Caucasus The Maeotians and related tribes such as the Sindi and Kerketi were Northwest Caucasian peoples ancestral to the modern Circassians, Abkhazians, Abazins, and Ubykh. They developed from the Proto-Maeotian culture of Krasnodar - likely a syncretism of the Post-Dolmen Horizon with the Koban culture. The Maeotians played a role in the politics of the Bosporan Kingdom, and were tightly knit with the Scytho-Sarmatian world. The male was buried in the Tsemdolina necropolis in Krasnodar, which contained elite burials of the local administrative and military aristocracy who oversaw the Bosporan presence on the Abrau Peninsula. The site yielded numerous Scythian-style bronze artifacts, including zoomorphic pieces, and featured large underground pit-type tombs with horse burials. Horse burials were widespread in the Iron Age Caucasus, a custom either introduced by Scytho-Cimmerians or developed locally, and persisted long after disappearing in the western Steppe. This practice helps distinguish Maeotians from the later Iranic Steppe nomads. He is depicted with a bronze cuirass bearing the Gorgon Medusa, found in a Maeotian kurgan of the Kuban steppe, Elizavetsky burial ground. Although often viewed as a Greek motif, the golden gorgoneion from the Ulyap sanctuary suggests a local interpretation. Its resemblance to the Chechen and Ingush goddess Tusholi, worshiped as a fearsome mask, may indicate that the Maeotians saw the gorgoneion as a form of the Great Goddess. Among Caucasian peoples, including the Maeotians, who practiced ritual decapitation and venerated human heads, the gorgoneion likely carried additional cultic significance. The woman was buried at Lobanovaya Shchel, an Iron Age cemetery 9.9 km west of Abrau-Dyurso. The community practiced stone-cist burials that continue Bronze Age funerary traditions. Lobanovaya Shchel contained iron weapons, including spearheads and knives; locally made pottery alongside imported vessels and diverse ornaments including bronze sinusoidal pendants, torcs, signet rings, silver lunula pendants, glass, jet, and bone beads, and cowrie-shell pendants; and tools such as iron knives, an awl, a bronze needle, and ceramic and lead spindle whorls. She is depicted with a headdress associated with finds from the Karagodeuashhe kurgan, which reflects a high-status Maeotian burial tradition. In such elite graves, the deceased was placed in a prepared multi-chamber stone tomb, accompanied by ceremonial attire, weapons, a funerary wagon with horses, and additional horse sacrifice in a nearby dromos, with the chieftain and his wife buried in separate chambers.

Ancestral Whispers

26,291 görüntüleme • 3 ay önce

Facial Reconstruction of a 4,000-Year-Old couple from Gatyn-Kale, Chechnya The Gatyn-Kale burial ground lies about 3 km northwest of Aslanbek-Sheripovo (formerly Gatyn-Kale), near the road connecting Shatoy and Sharoy-Argun. The site is located on a small plateau that slopes eastward toward a stream valley. South of the burial ground, beyond a narrow rise, lies a broad hollow containing the medieval village of Gatyn-Kale and the steep canyon of the Verdy-Akhk. The reconstructed individuals, a young warrior and likely his wife, were buried in a paired burial no. 7. The young man stood approximately 179 cm tall, while the young woman was about 160 cm in height. The warrior had suffered a fatal blow to his head. Burial 7 contained more than sixty objects, including ceramic vessels, bronze items such as ornaments, amulets and weapons, beads, arrowheads, and ornaments made from Caspian Sea shells (Krupnov, E. I., 1961). The population of Gatyn-Kale engaged in pastoralism and agriculture. The society was patriarchal: research has shown that paired burials (men and women) appear with the emergence of patriarchy. At the Gatyn-Kale site several such graves have been discovered - in these cases the woman was sacrificed so that she could accompany her husband in the afterlife. (Markovin, V. I., 1969) The individuals whose DNA was sampled at Gatyn-Kale carried the Y-DNA haplogroup J1-Z1842 and autosomally belonged to the Kura-Araxes cluster (Ghalichi, 2024). Anthropologically, the Gatyn-Kale skulls are relatively gracile for the Bronze Age. They are characterized by small cranial dimensions, a medium cranial index, a moderately high cranial vault, a medium-height face, narrow cheekbones, and low orbits. Culturally and anthropologically, the burial ground appears to represent a contact zone between the tribes of North Caucasus and Dagestan. Comparisons with cranial series from Dagestan, Georgia, the South Caucasus, and the Trans-Volga region show that the Gatyn-Kale skulls resemble the Volga series in cranial indices, while in their gracile morphology they correspond more closely to the southern (Indo-Mediterranean) type. These features may represent either a gracilized Proto-Europoid type, a southern variant, or the result of interaction between northern and southern anthropological types. However, the absence of medium cheekbone breadth (which would have resulted from admixture between a wide-faced northern population and a narrow-faced southern population) argues against significant admixture, suggesting instead a local southern variant or influence from populations of the Northcaucasian cultural sphere (“Antiquities of Dagestan”, Makhachkala, 1974).
0:24
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Facial Reconstruction of a 4,000-Year-Old couple from Gatyn-Kale, Chechnya The Gatyn-Kale burial ground lies about 3 km northwest of Aslanbek-Sheripovo (formerly Gatyn-Kale), near the road connecting Shatoy and Sharoy-Argun. The site is located on a small plateau that slopes eastward toward a stream valley. South of the burial ground, beyond a narrow rise, lies a broad hollow containing the medieval village of Gatyn-Kale and the steep canyon of the Verdy-Akhk. The reconstructed individuals, a young warrior and likely his wife, were buried in a paired burial no. 7. The young man stood approximately 179 cm tall, while the young woman was about 160 cm in height. The warrior had suffered a fatal blow to his head. Burial 7 contained more than sixty objects, including ceramic vessels, bronze items such as ornaments, amulets and weapons, beads, arrowheads, and ornaments made from Caspian Sea shells (Krupnov, E. I., 1961). The population of Gatyn-Kale engaged in pastoralism and agriculture. The society was patriarchal: research has shown that paired burials (men and women) appear with the emergence of patriarchy. At the Gatyn-Kale site several such graves have been discovered - in these cases the woman was sacrificed so that she could accompany her husband in the afterlife. (Markovin, V. I., 1969) The individuals whose DNA was sampled at Gatyn-Kale carried the Y-DNA haplogroup J1-Z1842 and autosomally belonged to the Kura-Araxes cluster (Ghalichi, 2024). Anthropologically, the Gatyn-Kale skulls are relatively gracile for the Bronze Age. They are characterized by small cranial dimensions, a medium cranial index, a moderately high cranial vault, a medium-height face, narrow cheekbones, and low orbits. Culturally and anthropologically, the burial ground appears to represent a contact zone between the tribes of North Caucasus and Dagestan. Comparisons with cranial series from Dagestan, Georgia, the South Caucasus, and the Trans-Volga region show that the Gatyn-Kale skulls resemble the Volga series in cranial indices, while in their gracile morphology they correspond more closely to the southern (Indo-Mediterranean) type. These features may represent either a gracilized Proto-Europoid type, a southern variant, or the result of interaction between northern and southern anthropological types. However, the absence of medium cheekbone breadth (which would have resulted from admixture between a wide-faced northern population and a narrow-faced southern population) argues against significant admixture, suggesting instead a local southern variant or influence from populations of the Northcaucasian cultural sphere (“Antiquities of Dagestan”, Makhachkala, 1974).

Ancestral Whispers

31,632 görüntüleme • 5 ay önce

Facial reconstructions of a 3,200-year-old likely Para-Armenic man and a 2,600-year-old likely Proto-Georgian/Iberian man from Samtavro in Mtskheta, Georgia The Bronze Age in East Georgia marked several periods of population replacement. Starting from the Early BA, East Georgia was inhabited by the people of the Kura-Araxes culture, associated with Northeast Caucasian speakers. In the Middle BA, following a cataclysmic environmental event, people of the Catacomb culture migrated from the steppes into the eastern Caucasus, mixing with the previous Kura-Araxans and playing a major role in the formation of the Trialeti culture, associated with Armenic speakers. By the Late BA, the genetic cluster associated with the Trialetians spread throughout most of eastern Transcaucasus, with the inhabitants of Mtskheta belonging to this genetic cluster. who are known in the archaeological record to favor distinct leaf-shaped daggers and swords. At this period, a new wave of people from West Georgia and Samtskhe began migrating into Kartli and other parts of East Georgia, bringing new metallurgical technologies and their distinct Colchian and Koban-style axes, associated with Kartvelians. A few centuries later, these Kartvelian invaders imposed themselves as the dominant population, conquering the preceding inhabitants in what later would be known as Mtskheta, the capital of Kartli. Anthropologist Malkhaz Abdushelishvili described the 3,300-year-old Samtavro man as brachycephalic, with weakly expressed relief and a narrow, high face. In contrast, the 2,600-year-old man was described by Malkhaz Abdushelishvili as dolichocephalic, with a moderately developed brow ridge, relatively large cranial dimensions and massive cranial features, and a wide face. The initial LBA population of Mtskheta associated with the Trialeti cluster is generally gracile, and the deeper it goes into the Iron Age, the more massive and robust the population becomes, correlating with an increase in CHG ancestry brought by Kartvelian tribes.
0:20
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Facial reconstructions of a 3,200-year-old likely Para-Armenic man and a 2,600-year-old likely Proto-Georgian/Iberian man from Samtavro in Mtskheta, Georgia The Bronze Age in East Georgia marked several periods of population replacement. Starting from the Early BA, East Georgia was inhabited by the people of the Kura-Araxes culture, associated with Northeast Caucasian speakers. In the Middle BA, following a cataclysmic environmental event, people of the Catacomb culture migrated from the steppes into the eastern Caucasus, mixing with the previous Kura-Araxans and playing a major role in the formation of the Trialeti culture, associated with Armenic speakers. By the Late BA, the genetic cluster associated with the Trialetians spread throughout most of eastern Transcaucasus, with the inhabitants of Mtskheta belonging to this genetic cluster. who are known in the archaeological record to favor distinct leaf-shaped daggers and swords. At this period, a new wave of people from West Georgia and Samtskhe began migrating into Kartli and other parts of East Georgia, bringing new metallurgical technologies and their distinct Colchian and Koban-style axes, associated with Kartvelians. A few centuries later, these Kartvelian invaders imposed themselves as the dominant population, conquering the preceding inhabitants in what later would be known as Mtskheta, the capital of Kartli. Anthropologist Malkhaz Abdushelishvili described the 3,300-year-old Samtavro man as brachycephalic, with weakly expressed relief and a narrow, high face. In contrast, the 2,600-year-old man was described by Malkhaz Abdushelishvili as dolichocephalic, with a moderately developed brow ridge, relatively large cranial dimensions and massive cranial features, and a wide face. The initial LBA population of Mtskheta associated with the Trialeti cluster is generally gracile, and the deeper it goes into the Iron Age, the more massive and robust the population becomes, correlating with an increase in CHG ancestry brought by Kartvelian tribes.

Ancestral Whispers

30,183 görüntüleme • 7 ay önce

What did the Yamnaya and related Steppe populations look like? 🧵 Let's break down the morphology of the Yamnaya and explore which modern populations they most closely resemble.
1:15
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What did the Yamnaya and related Steppe populations look like? 🧵 Let's break down the morphology of the Yamnaya and explore which modern populations they most closely resemble.

Ancestral Whispers

53,146 görüntüleme • 1 yıl önce

Facial reconstructions of two 4,000-year-old individuals from Abkhazia, Georgia The Dolmen culture was a Middle Bronze Age archaeological horizon in Abkhazia and Krasnodar, succeeding the Novosvobodnaya (late Maykop) culture and continuing traditions of megalithic tombs, ceramics, and settlement patterns. Some theories have been postulated that the Dolmen culture tradition of building dolmens was a cargo cult of Maykop culture burial practices. Settlements were typically near water, with wattle-and-daub houses and some cave use. The economy mixed animal husbandry (notably pigs), hoe agriculture, hunting, and fishing, alongside crafts such as pottery, stoneworking, weaving, and arsenical bronze metallurgy. Trade is evidenced by imported carnelian and faience beads. Dolmen ceramics likely reflect influences from Proto-Colchian and Ochamchire cultures via eastern Black Sea interactions. Regional variation is evident, including a possible distinct southern Sochi variant and limited dolmen presence in Abkhazia, suggesting brief or localized adoption of the tradition (M. I. Kudin, 2016). In Krasnodar, the culture was followed by the Post-Dolmen horizon (later linked to the EIA Proto-Maeotian development - a likely proto-Northwest Caucasian culture), while in Abkhazia it was replaced by the EIA Colchian culture, associated with Kartvelian tribes. From 1999 to 2000, an expedition led by V. Bzhania carried out surveys and excavations of cave sites in the Bzyb River gorge, including the Kaldakhvara Cave, the shelter near Blue Lake, and the Yupsy grotto. The work revealed important evidence about the succession and interaction of ancient cultures in the Caucasian Black Sea region during the 4th–2nd millennia BC. Of particular interest were two Bronze Age burials discovered in the Yupsy grotto, among the earliest human remains of this period found in Abkhazia. The bones were collected and initially studied in the field by anthropologist P. Kvitsinia. The burials were secondary, and the site itself is preliminarily dated to the late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC. The first Yupsy skull is well preserved and identified as female based on gracile morphology, including weak brow ridges, small mastoid processes, and reduced muscle attachment areas. The individual is estimated to be 50–60 years old, indicated by extensive tooth loss, complete alveolar resorption, and advanced cranial suture closure. The cranium is strongly dolichocranial (185.3 × 137.5 mm), with a high vault, and prominent occipital projection. The face is low and broad (127.5 mm), orthognathic, and flattened in the midface, with high zygomaxillary and nasomalar angles. Orbits are low and wide, and the nose is moderately broad but projecting. The maxilla shows severe resorption, and only two premolars remain in the mandible; the chin is strongly projecting. Postcranial remains are fragmentary, with a gracile femur, weak clavicular curvature, and an eurycnemic tibia, consistent with female sex estimation. Estimated stature is 150–160 cm. The second Yupsy skull is largely complete but lacks parts of the cranial base and left temporal/zygomatic regions. It shows clear asymmetry, especially in the occipital area, and moderate cranial relief. It is long-headed (cranial index 73.1) with large absolute dimensions (195.5 mm length, 143 mm width). The frontal bone is strongly developed with a vertical forehead, prominent supraorbital ridges, and a flattened glabella. The occipital region is asymmetrical with pronounced relief, while the parietals and temporal lines are weakly expressed. The face is low and very wide (hypereuryprosopic), with large zygomatic breadth - 138 mm, low facial height, square low orbits, and a wide interorbital distance. The nasal aperture is mesorrhine, and the maxilla and mandible show severe alveolar resorption. Age is estimated at 50-55 years, with extensive dental loss and suture closure. Postcranially, the skeleton is robust, with strong muscle attachments, some asymmetry, and degenerative changes in the pelvis and upper limbs. Estimated height is 166–182 cm, likely around 170 cm.
0:27
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Facial reconstructions of two 4,000-year-old individuals from Abkhazia, Georgia The Dolmen culture was a Middle Bronze Age archaeological horizon in Abkhazia and Krasnodar, succeeding the Novosvobodnaya (late Maykop) culture and continuing traditions of megalithic tombs, ceramics, and settlement patterns. Some theories have been postulated that the Dolmen culture tradition of building dolmens was a cargo cult of Maykop culture burial practices. Settlements were typically near water, with wattle-and-daub houses and some cave use. The economy mixed animal husbandry (notably pigs), hoe agriculture, hunting, and fishing, alongside crafts such as pottery, stoneworking, weaving, and arsenical bronze metallurgy. Trade is evidenced by imported carnelian and faience beads. Dolmen ceramics likely reflect influences from Proto-Colchian and Ochamchire cultures via eastern Black Sea interactions. Regional variation is evident, including a possible distinct southern Sochi variant and limited dolmen presence in Abkhazia, suggesting brief or localized adoption of the tradition (M. I. Kudin, 2016). In Krasnodar, the culture was followed by the Post-Dolmen horizon (later linked to the EIA Proto-Maeotian development - a likely proto-Northwest Caucasian culture), while in Abkhazia it was replaced by the EIA Colchian culture, associated with Kartvelian tribes. From 1999 to 2000, an expedition led by V. Bzhania carried out surveys and excavations of cave sites in the Bzyb River gorge, including the Kaldakhvara Cave, the shelter near Blue Lake, and the Yupsy grotto. The work revealed important evidence about the succession and interaction of ancient cultures in the Caucasian Black Sea region during the 4th–2nd millennia BC. Of particular interest were two Bronze Age burials discovered in the Yupsy grotto, among the earliest human remains of this period found in Abkhazia. The bones were collected and initially studied in the field by anthropologist P. Kvitsinia. The burials were secondary, and the site itself is preliminarily dated to the late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC. The first Yupsy skull is well preserved and identified as female based on gracile morphology, including weak brow ridges, small mastoid processes, and reduced muscle attachment areas. The individual is estimated to be 50–60 years old, indicated by extensive tooth loss, complete alveolar resorption, and advanced cranial suture closure. The cranium is strongly dolichocranial (185.3 × 137.5 mm), with a high vault, and prominent occipital projection. The face is low and broad (127.5 mm), orthognathic, and flattened in the midface, with high zygomaxillary and nasomalar angles. Orbits are low and wide, and the nose is moderately broad but projecting. The maxilla shows severe resorption, and only two premolars remain in the mandible; the chin is strongly projecting. Postcranial remains are fragmentary, with a gracile femur, weak clavicular curvature, and an eurycnemic tibia, consistent with female sex estimation. Estimated stature is 150–160 cm. The second Yupsy skull is largely complete but lacks parts of the cranial base and left temporal/zygomatic regions. It shows clear asymmetry, especially in the occipital area, and moderate cranial relief. It is long-headed (cranial index 73.1) with large absolute dimensions (195.5 mm length, 143 mm width). The frontal bone is strongly developed with a vertical forehead, prominent supraorbital ridges, and a flattened glabella. The occipital region is asymmetrical with pronounced relief, while the parietals and temporal lines are weakly expressed. The face is low and very wide (hypereuryprosopic), with large zygomatic breadth - 138 mm, low facial height, square low orbits, and a wide interorbital distance. The nasal aperture is mesorrhine, and the maxilla and mandible show severe alveolar resorption. Age is estimated at 50-55 years, with extensive dental loss and suture closure. Postcranially, the skeleton is robust, with strong muscle attachments, some asymmetry, and degenerative changes in the pelvis and upper limbs. Estimated height is 166–182 cm, likely around 170 cm.

Ancestral Whispers

13,026 görüntüleme • 3 ay önce

Facial reconstructions of a 2,500-year-old Sarmatian priestess and a Sarmatian warrior from the Filippovka kurgans in Orenburg region of Russia The first investigations of this site began in 1986, conducted by the Ufa Archaeological Expedition under the direction of Anatoly Kharitonovich Pshenichnyuk. Excavations of the central burial and nearby cache pits surrounding the main grave yielded a large number of objects made from precious metals, including the famous gold deer. In 2013, the study of this kurgan was completed by the Cis-Ural Expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, led by L. T. Yablonsky, who effectively saved the site through his rescue excavations. It was during the excavation of the remaining portion of the mound that he discovered a unique burial of a female priestess. Beneath the unexcavated eastern slope of the mound, an undisturbed female burial was found, untouched by looters and containing an exceptionally rich and diverse funerary assemblage comprising more than 1,200 objects. Among these were approximately 850 items made of precious metals and around 650 high-quality works of toreutics, Scytho-Siberian animal-style art, decorative and jewelry pieces, as well as a tattoo kit. The collection of artifacts from Burial 2 clearly indicates the extraordinarily high social status of the woman interred. The social role of women among the Sarmatians was so significant that Greek authors described them as “ruled by women.” Women fulfilled the roles of family and tribal priestesses, performing magical functions in rituals associated with pagan cults. The male remains, found with fragments of lamellar armor, originate from the central burial of the kurgan, which had already been looted in antiquity. The individual was a mature adult male. Minor postmortem deformation is visible in the occipital region, without affecting the facial skeleton. A well-developed muscular macrorrelief indicates strong physical development. The face is broad, relatively high, and flattened, with moderately projecting nasal bones. From a racial-anthropological perspective, this skull belongs to a brachycephalic, maturized Europoid type with facial flattening at the orbital level and a relatively weakly projecting nose. This represents a variant of the so-called “Eastern Europoid” type, with a minor Mongolid admixture, characteristic of part of the nomadic population of the Eurasian steppes during the Early Iron Age. (Aleksey Nechvaloda, 2015) The reconstructions were created and updated in collaboration with Alexey Nechvaloda for the Russian Scientific Conference with International Participation, “The Southern Urals in the Early Iron Age and the Great Migration Period: Cultural Connections and Interactions,” held in honor of the 90th anniversary of the birth of Anatoly Kharitonovich Pshenichnyuk (
0:20
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Facial reconstructions of a 2,500-year-old Sarmatian priestess and a Sarmatian warrior from the Filippovka kurgans in Orenburg region of Russia The first investigations of this site began in 1986, conducted by the Ufa Archaeological Expedition under the direction of Anatoly Kharitonovich Pshenichnyuk. Excavations of the central burial and nearby cache pits surrounding the main grave yielded a large number of objects made from precious metals, including the famous gold deer. In 2013, the study of this kurgan was completed by the Cis-Ural Expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, led by L. T. Yablonsky, who effectively saved the site through his rescue excavations. It was during the excavation of the remaining portion of the mound that he discovered a unique burial of a female priestess. Beneath the unexcavated eastern slope of the mound, an undisturbed female burial was found, untouched by looters and containing an exceptionally rich and diverse funerary assemblage comprising more than 1,200 objects. Among these were approximately 850 items made of precious metals and around 650 high-quality works of toreutics, Scytho-Siberian animal-style art, decorative and jewelry pieces, as well as a tattoo kit. The collection of artifacts from Burial 2 clearly indicates the extraordinarily high social status of the woman interred. The social role of women among the Sarmatians was so significant that Greek authors described them as “ruled by women.” Women fulfilled the roles of family and tribal priestesses, performing magical functions in rituals associated with pagan cults. The male remains, found with fragments of lamellar armor, originate from the central burial of the kurgan, which had already been looted in antiquity. The individual was a mature adult male. Minor postmortem deformation is visible in the occipital region, without affecting the facial skeleton. A well-developed muscular macrorrelief indicates strong physical development. The face is broad, relatively high, and flattened, with moderately projecting nasal bones. From a racial-anthropological perspective, this skull belongs to a brachycephalic, maturized Europoid type with facial flattening at the orbital level and a relatively weakly projecting nose. This represents a variant of the so-called “Eastern Europoid” type, with a minor Mongolid admixture, characteristic of part of the nomadic population of the Eurasian steppes during the Early Iron Age. (Aleksey Nechvaloda, 2015) The reconstructions were created and updated in collaboration with Alexey Nechvaloda for the Russian Scientific Conference with International Participation, “The Southern Urals in the Early Iron Age and the Great Migration Period: Cultural Connections and Interactions,” held in honor of the 90th anniversary of the birth of Anatoly Kharitonovich Pshenichnyuk (

Ancestral Whispers

15,659 görüntüleme • 7 ay önce

Facial reconstructions of 2,850-year-old Hurrians from Urmia The people of Iron Age Hasanlu were genetically a mixture of Zagrosians, Upper Mesopotamians, and Proto-Armenics. Hasanlu is an archaeological site of an ancient city located in northwest Iran, in the province of West Azerbaijan, just south of Lake Urmia. The settlement was likely associated with the Mannaeans, a Hurro-Urartian people with a possible Indo-European substrate related to the Armenic branch. The Hasanlu man was laid on his back beneath a hypogeum wall, head west, facing south with flexed legs. He had Rich grave goods - bronze and iron weapons, an iron armlet, jewelry, a decorated bronze belt, and ceramic vessels, indicating a high-status individual. The style of his belt and ornaments links his material culture to the South Caucasus and early Urartian cultural sphere, showing close artistic and technological connections between these regions around 900–850 BCE. The people of Dinkha III were likely Hurrian, and closely related to the Hasanlu Iron Age cultural horizon of the Urmia region. Dinkha III burials are primarily recognized by their associated grave goods, which are quite similar to those found in the Hasanlu excavations. The dead were buried in individual graves without markers; the brick tombs generally opened to the east. Men, women, and children were interred in the same area and apparently received the same burial rites. All burials were placed within pits, which were then refilled. The Dinkha Tepe individual was a mature adult, buried flexed on his back in a north-south orientation, with the head to the south. The right arm was bent back to touch the shoulder. He was buried with a plain bracelet with overlapping tapered ends on the right wrist; a stone button with drilled designs by the left foot; and assorted beads at the throat, including coarse faience, fine faience (possibly glass), paste, carnelian, and a lotus-bud-shaped bead of fine faience or glass. A socketed spear was placed along the left leg, such that the shaft must have passed over the body. At the feet were a dark gray burnished spouted vessel and a gray IIC worm bowl with two holes. Reconstructions commissioned by 𒁍𒊑 𒋗𒊑𒌍 Buri Šoreš 𓄂❤️☀️💚
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Facial reconstructions of 2,850-year-old Hurrians from Urmia The people of Iron Age Hasanlu were genetically a mixture of Zagrosians, Upper Mesopotamians, and Proto-Armenics. Hasanlu is an archaeological site of an ancient city located in northwest Iran, in the province of West Azerbaijan, just south of Lake Urmia. The settlement was likely associated with the Mannaeans, a Hurro-Urartian people with a possible Indo-European substrate related to the Armenic branch. The Hasanlu man was laid on his back beneath a hypogeum wall, head west, facing south with flexed legs. He had Rich grave goods - bronze and iron weapons, an iron armlet, jewelry, a decorated bronze belt, and ceramic vessels, indicating a high-status individual. The style of his belt and ornaments links his material culture to the South Caucasus and early Urartian cultural sphere, showing close artistic and technological connections between these regions around 900–850 BCE. The people of Dinkha III were likely Hurrian, and closely related to the Hasanlu Iron Age cultural horizon of the Urmia region. Dinkha III burials are primarily recognized by their associated grave goods, which are quite similar to those found in the Hasanlu excavations. The dead were buried in individual graves without markers; the brick tombs generally opened to the east. Men, women, and children were interred in the same area and apparently received the same burial rites. All burials were placed within pits, which were then refilled. The Dinkha Tepe individual was a mature adult, buried flexed on his back in a north-south orientation, with the head to the south. The right arm was bent back to touch the shoulder. He was buried with a plain bracelet with overlapping tapered ends on the right wrist; a stone button with drilled designs by the left foot; and assorted beads at the throat, including coarse faience, fine faience (possibly glass), paste, carnelian, and a lotus-bud-shaped bead of fine faience or glass. A socketed spear was placed along the left leg, such that the shaft must have passed over the body. At the feet were a dark gray burnished spouted vessel and a gray IIC worm bowl with two holes. Reconstructions commissioned by 𒁍𒊑 𒋗𒊑𒌍 Buri Šoreš 𓄂❤️☀️💚

Ancestral Whispers

10,944 görüntüleme • 6 ay önce

Daha fazla içerik yok.