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Ancestral Whispers

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Facial reconstructions, Anthropology, Archaeogenetics, Archaeology, Ethnography.

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Facial reconstructions of a 2,300-year-old Pazyryk Scythian male and a female outlier from the same kurgan in Berel, Kazakhstan The man and woman, approximately 30-55 years old and 18-25 years old, respectively, were buried in the same kurgan, richly furnished with grave goods. Morphologically, the two individuals differed: the man displayed a mix of Caucasoid and East Asian traits, with a stronger leaning toward Caucasoid features, similar to other cranial remains from this set, and was likely of local Pazyryk Iranic Scythian elite origin. In contrast, the woman exhibited more pronounced East Eurasian features. Individuals with such traits appear in both common and elite burials, such as at the Ak-Alakha-3/5 cemetery. Archaeologists and anthropologists have speculated that the female outlier may have been incorporated into the elite stratum of Pazyryk society and is possibly associated with the Korgantas culture. Both skeletons show evidence of post-mortem trepanation. The male skull bore an irregular perforation resulting from blunt trauma, later refined with a sharp tool. The female skull exhibited a rectangular perforation (64 × 35.8 mm) with cut marks, along with the excised fragment (42 × 33 mm), suggesting a deliberate opening after death, likely as part of the mummification process. Cranial measurements indicate that the man had a medium-large cranial length of 185 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 147 mm, and a large cheek width of 139 mm. The woman had a large cranial length of 182 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 143 mm, and a large cheek width of 135 mm (Kitov, 2023).

Facial reconstructions of a 2,300-year-old Pazyryk Scythian male and a female outlier from the same kurgan in Berel, Kazakhstan The man and woman, approximately 30-55 years old and 18-25 years old, respectively, were buried in the same kurgan, richly furnished with grave goods. Morphologically, the two individuals differed: the man displayed a mix of Caucasoid and East Asian traits, with a stronger leaning toward Caucasoid features, similar to other cranial remains from this set, and was likely of local Pazyryk Iranic Scythian elite origin. In contrast, the woman exhibited more pronounced East Eurasian features. Individuals with such traits appear in both common and elite burials, such as at the Ak-Alakha-3/5 cemetery. Archaeologists and anthropologists have speculated that the female outlier may have been incorporated into the elite stratum of Pazyryk society and is possibly associated with the Korgantas culture. Both skeletons show evidence of post-mortem trepanation. The male skull bore an irregular perforation resulting from blunt trauma, later refined with a sharp tool. The female skull exhibited a rectangular perforation (64 × 35.8 mm) with cut marks, along with the excised fragment (42 × 33 mm), suggesting a deliberate opening after death, likely as part of the mummification process. Cranial measurements indicate that the man had a medium-large cranial length of 185 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 147 mm, and a large cheek width of 139 mm. The woman had a large cranial length of 182 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 143 mm, and a large cheek width of 135 mm (Kitov, 2023).

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Facial reconstruction of a 3,750-year-old acromegalic Aryan smith from Chelyabinsk He belonged to the proto-Indo-Iranian Sintashta culture, which traces its origins farther to the west in Europe. In the late 1970s, archaeologists discovered a fortified settlement of the Sintashta people in the Troitsk district of the Chelyabinsk region, which was named Chernorechye-III. A few years later, not far from it, researchers also identified the ancient cemetery of Krivoe Ozero, where its inhabitants may have been buried. In the third grave of barrow number ten, archaeologists found the skeleton of an adult who had been buried on his side with bent legs and arms, with the hands positioned close to the face. Alongside the skeleton, scientists found ceramic vessels, animal bones, metal objects and fragments of them, as well as pieces of ore and slag. Anthropologists determined that the skeleton belonged to an adult man approximately 164-167 cm tall, who died at an age of over 50. On his bones they identified signs that during his life he had performed heavy physical labor, with more strain on the arm muscles than on the legs. Together with the finds of ore, slag, and metal items, this suggests, according to the researchers, that the burial most likely belongs to an ancient metallurgist who worked in processing copper ore, forging bronze tools, and possibly frequently pumped air into furnaces using bellows. In addition, anthropologists noted this man’s atypical appearance, which differed significantly from the general Sintashta population. Apparently, he suffered from acromegaly - a pituitary disorder that leads to the enlargement and thickening of cranial bones. Moreover, the analysis of ore from this man’s grave showed the presence of material from gold-copper-porphyry deposits. The nearest such deposit with evidence of ancient mining is located in the Ural-Mugodzhary mining-metallurgical center - roughly 300-350 kilometers south of the cemetery. This likely indicates contacts between the Sintashta people and inhabitants of more southern regions. The paleoanthropological material from the site was described by G. V. Rykushina (Rykushina 2003), unfortunately only at the individual level. The author noted the presence of morphologically different skulls in the sample - Europoid (kurgan 1, burial 3; kurgan 10, burial 3; kurgan 10, burial 34), gracile Europoid (kurgan 9, burial 7), and a Europoid skull with equatorial features (kurgan 10, burial 6). Based on the study of pathological markers (such as mastoiditis, cranial infections, and diseases of the dental-jaw system), the author suggested that this group had immigrated from a different climatic zone (Rykushina 2003: 360). A particularly specific skull that should be noted is from kurgan 10, burial 3, which is characterized by overall maturization, dolichocrany, a high cranial vault, a large facial skeleton, and moderate horizontal profiling with a strongly projecting nose. One must agree with G. V. Rykushina’s observation of signs of hormonal disorders that led to the development of acromegaly (Rykushina 2003: 352). This likely caused changes in the size of the facial skeleton, primarily in height and width. However, even without considering these pathologies, this skull is quite distinctive. (E. P. Kitov, A. A. Khokhlov, P. S. Medvedeva 2018) The man had a medium-large cranial length of 182 mm, a medium-small cranial width of 135 mm, and a broad cheekbone width of around 145 mm.

Facial reconstruction of a 3,750-year-old acromegalic Aryan smith from Chelyabinsk He belonged to the proto-Indo-Iranian Sintashta culture, which traces its origins farther to the west in Europe. In the late 1970s, archaeologists discovered a fortified settlement of the Sintashta people in the Troitsk district of the Chelyabinsk region, which was named Chernorechye-III. A few years later, not far from it, researchers also identified the ancient cemetery of Krivoe Ozero, where its inhabitants may have been buried. In the third grave of barrow number ten, archaeologists found the skeleton of an adult who had been buried on his side with bent legs and arms, with the hands positioned close to the face. Alongside the skeleton, scientists found ceramic vessels, animal bones, metal objects and fragments of them, as well as pieces of ore and slag. Anthropologists determined that the skeleton belonged to an adult man approximately 164-167 cm tall, who died at an age of over 50. On his bones they identified signs that during his life he had performed heavy physical labor, with more strain on the arm muscles than on the legs. Together with the finds of ore, slag, and metal items, this suggests, according to the researchers, that the burial most likely belongs to an ancient metallurgist who worked in processing copper ore, forging bronze tools, and possibly frequently pumped air into furnaces using bellows. In addition, anthropologists noted this man’s atypical appearance, which differed significantly from the general Sintashta population. Apparently, he suffered from acromegaly - a pituitary disorder that leads to the enlargement and thickening of cranial bones. Moreover, the analysis of ore from this man’s grave showed the presence of material from gold-copper-porphyry deposits. The nearest such deposit with evidence of ancient mining is located in the Ural-Mugodzhary mining-metallurgical center - roughly 300-350 kilometers south of the cemetery. This likely indicates contacts between the Sintashta people and inhabitants of more southern regions. The paleoanthropological material from the site was described by G. V. Rykushina (Rykushina 2003), unfortunately only at the individual level. The author noted the presence of morphologically different skulls in the sample - Europoid (kurgan 1, burial 3; kurgan 10, burial 3; kurgan 10, burial 34), gracile Europoid (kurgan 9, burial 7), and a Europoid skull with equatorial features (kurgan 10, burial 6). Based on the study of pathological markers (such as mastoiditis, cranial infections, and diseases of the dental-jaw system), the author suggested that this group had immigrated from a different climatic zone (Rykushina 2003: 360). A particularly specific skull that should be noted is from kurgan 10, burial 3, which is characterized by overall maturization, dolichocrany, a high cranial vault, a large facial skeleton, and moderate horizontal profiling with a strongly projecting nose. One must agree with G. V. Rykushina’s observation of signs of hormonal disorders that led to the development of acromegaly (Rykushina 2003: 352). This likely caused changes in the size of the facial skeleton, primarily in height and width. However, even without considering these pathologies, this skull is quite distinctive. (E. P. Kitov, A. A. Khokhlov, P. S. Medvedeva 2018) The man had a medium-large cranial length of 182 mm, a medium-small cranial width of 135 mm, and a broad cheekbone width of around 145 mm.

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Facial reconstruction of a 2,500-year-old man from Gaston Uota, Ossetia The Koban culture is one of the most distinctive phenomena of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of the Caucasus, renowned for its advanced bronze metallurgy and high-quality craftsmanship. It occupied much of the Central Caucasus, bordering the Proto-Maeotian culture (associated with Northwest Caucasian speakers) in the west and the Kayakent-Kharachoy culture (associated with Northeast Caucasians speakers, possibly Nakh) in the east. Many archaeologists associate the indigenous Bronze Age population of the central Greater Caucasus with the bearers of the Koban culture. Traditionally viewed as pastoralists, recent research has shown that some Koban communities, particularly in the Kislovodsk Basin, also practiced intensive agriculture, while pastoralism likely remained dominant in other regions. The language of the Koban people remains unknown. Some scholars, including Valentina Ivanovna Kozenkova, have suggested a possible Kartvelian affiliation based on the proposed homeland of the culture in the Great Liakhvi River basin, though no direct linguistic evidence survives. Genetic studies have identified high levels of CHG ancestry and a high frequency of Y-DNA haplogroup G2a1 within the main Koban genetic cluster. Similar genetic profiles are also found among populations associated with the expansion of Kartvelian-speaking groups into eastern Georgia during the Late Bronze Age. Together with archaeological parallels, particularly between Colchian and Koban axes, these findings support a Kartvelian connection for the Koban culture. The paleoanthropological material from the Gaston Uota burial ground (excavations by A.P. Moshinsky, 1987–1997) includes skeletal remains from 14 collective burials representing 67 individuals. The sample shows an unusually low proportion of children (only 9%), with no infant burials, likely due to different burial practices for younger age groups. The sex ratio is balanced (1:1), while age distribution shows equal representation of adult, mature, and elderly groups (20% each). Young adults (20–35 years), the key reproductive group, display elevated mortality (40%). Life expectancy, excluding children, averages 42.1 years (47.1 for males, 37.0 for females). A strong shift in gender ratios occurs with age: females dominate in younger adult stages, but males become predominant in older age groups, reaching a strong surplus in late adulthood and old age. This may reflect a relatively closed population with limited external female influx and higher female mortality. The material is divided into early (7th–6th centuries BC) and late (late 5th–early 4th centuries BC) groups. Early male skulls show a homogeneous Europoid morphology characterized by dolichocrany (185 mm x 136.6 mm), a low cranial vault, narrow face (126.5 mm), low nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles, and strongly projecting narrow nose. Male skulls from the later period continue the same general morphological pattern. (M.M. Gerasimova, D.V. Pezhemsky, 2013)

Facial reconstruction of a 2,500-year-old man from Gaston Uota, Ossetia The Koban culture is one of the most distinctive phenomena of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of the Caucasus, renowned for its advanced bronze metallurgy and high-quality craftsmanship. It occupied much of the Central Caucasus, bordering the Proto-Maeotian culture (associated with Northwest Caucasian speakers) in the west and the Kayakent-Kharachoy culture (associated with Northeast Caucasians speakers, possibly Nakh) in the east. Many archaeologists associate the indigenous Bronze Age population of the central Greater Caucasus with the bearers of the Koban culture. Traditionally viewed as pastoralists, recent research has shown that some Koban communities, particularly in the Kislovodsk Basin, also practiced intensive agriculture, while pastoralism likely remained dominant in other regions. The language of the Koban people remains unknown. Some scholars, including Valentina Ivanovna Kozenkova, have suggested a possible Kartvelian affiliation based on the proposed homeland of the culture in the Great Liakhvi River basin, though no direct linguistic evidence survives. Genetic studies have identified high levels of CHG ancestry and a high frequency of Y-DNA haplogroup G2a1 within the main Koban genetic cluster. Similar genetic profiles are also found among populations associated with the expansion of Kartvelian-speaking groups into eastern Georgia during the Late Bronze Age. Together with archaeological parallels, particularly between Colchian and Koban axes, these findings support a Kartvelian connection for the Koban culture. The paleoanthropological material from the Gaston Uota burial ground (excavations by A.P. Moshinsky, 1987–1997) includes skeletal remains from 14 collective burials representing 67 individuals. The sample shows an unusually low proportion of children (only 9%), with no infant burials, likely due to different burial practices for younger age groups. The sex ratio is balanced (1:1), while age distribution shows equal representation of adult, mature, and elderly groups (20% each). Young adults (20–35 years), the key reproductive group, display elevated mortality (40%). Life expectancy, excluding children, averages 42.1 years (47.1 for males, 37.0 for females). A strong shift in gender ratios occurs with age: females dominate in younger adult stages, but males become predominant in older age groups, reaching a strong surplus in late adulthood and old age. This may reflect a relatively closed population with limited external female influx and higher female mortality. The material is divided into early (7th–6th centuries BC) and late (late 5th–early 4th centuries BC) groups. Early male skulls show a homogeneous Europoid morphology characterized by dolichocrany (185 mm x 136.6 mm), a low cranial vault, narrow face (126.5 mm), low nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles, and strongly projecting narrow nose. Male skulls from the later period continue the same general morphological pattern. (M.M. Gerasimova, D.V. Pezhemsky, 2013)

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Facial reconstruction of a 11,250-year-old man from Nigeria The Iwo Eleru rock shelter in Nigeria, excavated in 1965, yielded over 500,000 Late Stone Age artifacts and radiocarbon dates ranging from ~15,000 to 9250 BC. A poorly preserved, tightly contracted human skeleton was found in undisturbed layers. The skull is long and low, with moderate brow ridges, a sloping forehead, and relatively flat nasal features. Despite some post-mortem distortion and reconstruction, its overall shape appears reliable. The face is mostly missing (missing hard tissue fragments were added for the reconstruction, some aspects of which are hypothetical), but the mandible is robust, though lacking a pronounced chin. The postcranial skeleton is highly fragmented, making precise measurements difficult. However, the long bones suggest a moderately robust individual of medium build, with an estimated height not exceeding ~165 cm. It has been argued that the Iwo Eleru fossil represents either an archaic hybrid or a relict archaic Homo population. In 2014, Christopher Stojanowski of Arizona State University outlined three main explanations for its unusual cranial shape: It was a hybrid with archaic African populations; it belonged to a relict archaic group later replaced by modern humans at the start of the Holocene; or it came from a population that diverged from other North African groups during a period of extreme Saharan aridity.

Facial reconstruction of a 11,250-year-old man from Nigeria The Iwo Eleru rock shelter in Nigeria, excavated in 1965, yielded over 500,000 Late Stone Age artifacts and radiocarbon dates ranging from ~15,000 to 9250 BC. A poorly preserved, tightly contracted human skeleton was found in undisturbed layers. The skull is long and low, with moderate brow ridges, a sloping forehead, and relatively flat nasal features. Despite some post-mortem distortion and reconstruction, its overall shape appears reliable. The face is mostly missing (missing hard tissue fragments were added for the reconstruction, some aspects of which are hypothetical), but the mandible is robust, though lacking a pronounced chin. The postcranial skeleton is highly fragmented, making precise measurements difficult. However, the long bones suggest a moderately robust individual of medium build, with an estimated height not exceeding ~165 cm. It has been argued that the Iwo Eleru fossil represents either an archaic hybrid or a relict archaic Homo population. In 2014, Christopher Stojanowski of Arizona State University outlined three main explanations for its unusual cranial shape: It was a hybrid with archaic African populations; it belonged to a relict archaic group later replaced by modern humans at the start of the Holocene; or it came from a population that diverged from other North African groups during a period of extreme Saharan aridity.

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Facial reconstruction of a Yamnaya man from Bykovo, Volgograd region Unlike most Yamnaya individuals, who typically carried R1b-Z2103, this individual belonged to the R1b-M269 lineage, upstream to both Z2103 and L51. He was buried with Repin-type ceramics, possibly indicating a connection to, or intrusion from, Repin cultural groups (Merpert, 1974), (Khokhlov et al., 2024). Cranially, he (Bykovo II, 12/7) fits well within the broader Yamnaya morphological spectrum, described as robust and hypermorphic, and classified as Protoeuropoid (Glazkova & Chtetsov, 1960). His cranial measurements - length 204 mm, width 145 mm, and bizygomatic breadth 145 mm - are very large. (Khokhlov, 2017) Other individuals with R1b-M269 have also been identified in the Volga–Ural Yamnaya context - Lopatino I (1/1), and Krasikovsky I (1/1) - with the latter sites likewise yielding large, robust Protoeuropoid cranial types (Khokhlov, 2017), (Khokhlov et al., 2024).

Facial reconstruction of a Yamnaya man from Bykovo, Volgograd region Unlike most Yamnaya individuals, who typically carried R1b-Z2103, this individual belonged to the R1b-M269 lineage, upstream to both Z2103 and L51. He was buried with Repin-type ceramics, possibly indicating a connection to, or intrusion from, Repin cultural groups (Merpert, 1974), (Khokhlov et al., 2024). Cranially, he (Bykovo II, 12/7) fits well within the broader Yamnaya morphological spectrum, described as robust and hypermorphic, and classified as Protoeuropoid (Glazkova & Chtetsov, 1960). His cranial measurements - length 204 mm, width 145 mm, and bizygomatic breadth 145 mm - are very large. (Khokhlov, 2017) Other individuals with R1b-M269 have also been identified in the Volga–Ural Yamnaya context - Lopatino I (1/1), and Krasikovsky I (1/1) - with the latter sites likewise yielding large, robust Protoeuropoid cranial types (Khokhlov, 2017), (Khokhlov et al., 2024).

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Facial reconstruction of a 2,000-year-old individual from the Saka-Wusun period at Ala-Myshyk, Tian Shan, Kyrgyzstan The union of the Wusun tribes, which became especially powerful in the 3rd-1st centuries BC, had the ruler’s (Gunmo) headquarters in the city of Chigu, on the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul. The weakening of the Wusun confederation began in the 1st century AD, when it suffered a strong blow from the Xiongnu, but it was fully destroyed in the 4th-5th centuries AD by the Rourans, who are thought to have come from Mongolia. The first cranial data on the Wusun of the Tian Shan were studied by T. A. Trofimova (1936, 1949), based on seven skulls dated to the 1st century BC-1st century AD, excavated near Karakol at the eastern end of Issyk-Kul. G. F. Debets later expanded the sample with finds from S. A. Teploukhov and, in 1948, confirmed its classification within the Central Asian interfluve type. These skulls lie at the lower boundary of brachycrania (CI: males 81.3, females 83.4), with medium-high vaults, relatively broad faces, orthognathous but moderately profiled features, and moderately projecting noses. Only two show lower cranial indices, one with a narrow face. Overall, the series is predominantly Europoid with slight Mongolid admixture. The cranial vault dimensions of the Wusun are of medium size, which corresponds to a cranial index of 81, placing them at the lower boundary of brachycrania. The facial part of the skull is low (males - 71 mm, females — 68 mm), but fairly broad (males - 137 mm, females - 126 mm). The horizontal facial profile is moderate (zygomaxillary angle - 131°). Nasal projection is medium or above average (males - 28°, females - 22°), while the height of the nasal bridge tends toward higher values. Overall, the Wusun of the Tian Shan occupy an intermediate position between the major races. They belong to the Europoid race, but show a clear, though slight, Mongolid admixture, expressed in a certain facial flatness. These Mongolid traits appear superimposed upon an essentially Europoid cranial base. Some skulls show little to no Mongolid influence, while others display it more strongly. More detailed analysis shows this type to be intermediate between the Andronovo type and the Central Asian interfluve type, with varying degrees of transition between them. At the same time, the Wusun of the Tian Shan and Alay also show admixture from another Europoid type - dolichocranial, narrow-faced, Mediterranean. In the Tian Shan, this component appears scattered among the population, whereas in the Alay Valley it is concentrated in specific burial grounds, suggesting kin-based groupings and differing ethnic connections among tribes. Some tribes were clearly in contact with populations of the Pamir Plateau, which during the Saka-Wusun period belonged to a distinctly Mediterranean Europoid type, as noted earlier. (Ginzburg & Trofimova, 1972)

Facial reconstruction of a 2,000-year-old individual from the Saka-Wusun period at Ala-Myshyk, Tian Shan, Kyrgyzstan The union of the Wusun tribes, which became especially powerful in the 3rd-1st centuries BC, had the ruler’s (Gunmo) headquarters in the city of Chigu, on the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul. The weakening of the Wusun confederation began in the 1st century AD, when it suffered a strong blow from the Xiongnu, but it was fully destroyed in the 4th-5th centuries AD by the Rourans, who are thought to have come from Mongolia. The first cranial data on the Wusun of the Tian Shan were studied by T. A. Trofimova (1936, 1949), based on seven skulls dated to the 1st century BC-1st century AD, excavated near Karakol at the eastern end of Issyk-Kul. G. F. Debets later expanded the sample with finds from S. A. Teploukhov and, in 1948, confirmed its classification within the Central Asian interfluve type. These skulls lie at the lower boundary of brachycrania (CI: males 81.3, females 83.4), with medium-high vaults, relatively broad faces, orthognathous but moderately profiled features, and moderately projecting noses. Only two show lower cranial indices, one with a narrow face. Overall, the series is predominantly Europoid with slight Mongolid admixture. The cranial vault dimensions of the Wusun are of medium size, which corresponds to a cranial index of 81, placing them at the lower boundary of brachycrania. The facial part of the skull is low (males - 71 mm, females — 68 mm), but fairly broad (males - 137 mm, females - 126 mm). The horizontal facial profile is moderate (zygomaxillary angle - 131°). Nasal projection is medium or above average (males - 28°, females - 22°), while the height of the nasal bridge tends toward higher values. Overall, the Wusun of the Tian Shan occupy an intermediate position between the major races. They belong to the Europoid race, but show a clear, though slight, Mongolid admixture, expressed in a certain facial flatness. These Mongolid traits appear superimposed upon an essentially Europoid cranial base. Some skulls show little to no Mongolid influence, while others display it more strongly. More detailed analysis shows this type to be intermediate between the Andronovo type and the Central Asian interfluve type, with varying degrees of transition between them. At the same time, the Wusun of the Tian Shan and Alay also show admixture from another Europoid type - dolichocranial, narrow-faced, Mediterranean. In the Tian Shan, this component appears scattered among the population, whereas in the Alay Valley it is concentrated in specific burial grounds, suggesting kin-based groupings and differing ethnic connections among tribes. Some tribes were clearly in contact with populations of the Pamir Plateau, which during the Saka-Wusun period belonged to a distinctly Mediterranean Europoid type, as noted earlier. (Ginzburg & Trofimova, 1972)

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Facial reconstruction of a 6,000-year-old man from Areni, Armenia Areni-1 Cave, is the site of the world’s oldest known winery. Excavations begun in 2007 uncovered Chalcolithic-era vessels, some containing adolescent skulls, along with evidence of ancient winemaking facilities such as fermentation vats, wine storage jars, and grape remains. The cave’s stable temperature and low humidity preserved remarkable organic finds, including the world’s oldest known leather shoe. The 5,500-year-old shoe, 24.5 cm long (European size 37), made for the right foot, was crafted from a single piece of leather. Its laces also survived. The shoe had been stuffed with grass, probably to help maintain its shape. It remains unclear whether the shoe belonged to a man or a woman. Straw skirt and fragments of a human brain were also found in the cave. According to some specialists, nobody actually lived inside the cave, and wine consumption there was ritualistic in nature. Some cave finds suggest that the local wild tribes practiced ritual cannibalism. Deep within Areni Cave, near food storage containers, archaeologists discovered the remains of children and adults buried in clay pots, which were relatively well preserved. Three skulls belonged to young individuals died most likely from whip blows. According to one expert, researchers proposed a working hypothesis that parts of the sacrificed bodies were eaten by participants in a religious ritual. In this way, they believed they were communicating with the world into which the innocent victims had passed. The reconstructed individual was 18 ± 3 years old. He had a medium cranial length of 177.5 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 145 mm, and a very narrow face/bizygomatic breadth of 113 mm. His nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles - 141° and 135° - were on the higher end of Caucasoid ranges and closer to Mongolid values. The individual was brachycephalic. In craniological samples from the Bronze and Iron Ages of Armenia, no cases of brachycrania had previously been encountered (A. Yu. Khudaverdyan, B. Z. Gasparyan, R. Pinhasi, A. S. Kananyan, N. A. Hovhannisyan, 2017). Genetically, all sampled male individuals from Areni-1 Cave belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup L1a1. Their mtDNA lineages included K1a8 and H2a1. Autosomally, they were predominantly of Mesopotamian ancestry, with some Steppe Eneolithic ~25% or Nalchik-related ~ 40% admixture, the source of which is not yet fully understood. They also carried genes associated with light hair and blue eyes. Older Neolithic individuals from Azerbaijan with fully Mesopotamian ancestry, such as those from Polutepe and Mentesh Tepe, likewise carried genes for light hair and blue eyes. These people were later succeeded by the Kura-Araxes culture, which is associated with Northeast Caucasian speakers.

Facial reconstruction of a 6,000-year-old man from Areni, Armenia Areni-1 Cave, is the site of the world’s oldest known winery. Excavations begun in 2007 uncovered Chalcolithic-era vessels, some containing adolescent skulls, along with evidence of ancient winemaking facilities such as fermentation vats, wine storage jars, and grape remains. The cave’s stable temperature and low humidity preserved remarkable organic finds, including the world’s oldest known leather shoe. The 5,500-year-old shoe, 24.5 cm long (European size 37), made for the right foot, was crafted from a single piece of leather. Its laces also survived. The shoe had been stuffed with grass, probably to help maintain its shape. It remains unclear whether the shoe belonged to a man or a woman. Straw skirt and fragments of a human brain were also found in the cave. According to some specialists, nobody actually lived inside the cave, and wine consumption there was ritualistic in nature. Some cave finds suggest that the local wild tribes practiced ritual cannibalism. Deep within Areni Cave, near food storage containers, archaeologists discovered the remains of children and adults buried in clay pots, which were relatively well preserved. Three skulls belonged to young individuals died most likely from whip blows. According to one expert, researchers proposed a working hypothesis that parts of the sacrificed bodies were eaten by participants in a religious ritual. In this way, they believed they were communicating with the world into which the innocent victims had passed. The reconstructed individual was 18 ± 3 years old. He had a medium cranial length of 177.5 mm, a medium-large cranial width of 145 mm, and a very narrow face/bizygomatic breadth of 113 mm. His nasomalar and zygomaxillary angles - 141° and 135° - were on the higher end of Caucasoid ranges and closer to Mongolid values. The individual was brachycephalic. In craniological samples from the Bronze and Iron Ages of Armenia, no cases of brachycrania had previously been encountered (A. Yu. Khudaverdyan, B. Z. Gasparyan, R. Pinhasi, A. S. Kananyan, N. A. Hovhannisyan, 2017). Genetically, all sampled male individuals from Areni-1 Cave belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup L1a1. Their mtDNA lineages included K1a8 and H2a1. Autosomally, they were predominantly of Mesopotamian ancestry, with some Steppe Eneolithic ~25% or Nalchik-related ~ 40% admixture, the source of which is not yet fully understood. They also carried genes associated with light hair and blue eyes. Older Neolithic individuals from Azerbaijan with fully Mesopotamian ancestry, such as those from Polutepe and Mentesh Tepe, likewise carried genes for light hair and blue eyes. These people were later succeeded by the Kura-Araxes culture, which is associated with Northeast Caucasian speakers.

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Facial reconstruction of a Merethic Era Atmoran from Saarthal Founded by Ysgramor, Saarthal was the first city of the Atmorans, who would later be known as Nords. After their arrival, the Atmorans lived peacefully with the local Falmer. However, fearing that the Atmoran expansion would surpass their own, the Falmer destroyed the city, and only Ysgramor and his two sons escaped the carnage. The destruction of the city was later avenged when Ysgramor returned with his famed warriors, the Five Hundred Companions. Several expeditions have been carried out by archaeologists from the College of Winterhold to study the ancient ruins of Saarthal. During these excavations, several cranial series were uncovered. Anthropologists from the College of Winterhold have noted increased hypermorphy in the ancient Atmorans relative to their modern Nord descendants, including larger brow ridges, much larger teeth, very wide bigonial and bicondylar widths, wider and taller faces, a more archaic low orbital shape, more defined upper facial relief, slightly wider nasal apertures, and slightly weaker chin protrusion. The skulls were predominantly dolichocephalic and very thick, but interestingly had relatively small mastoid processes. Later morphogenetic processes, including admixture with the Mer, and environmental factors such as a more agriculture-based lifestyle, played a role in the gracilization of the Atmorans. Among modern cranial series, the Nords of the Pale, Winterhold, and northern Eastmarch cluster closest to the Atmorans of Saarthal, along with some cranial series from Colovia. The reconstructed man, about 40 years old, stood around 190 cm tall and was massively built. He was found in the lower layers of Saarthal along with some Ancient Nord gear, including a full set of ancient Nord armor, an ancient Nord sword and an ancient Nord amulet with a One-Handed enchantment. Postcranial data shows magicka-related trauma, which was likely the cause of his demise.

Facial reconstruction of a Merethic Era Atmoran from Saarthal Founded by Ysgramor, Saarthal was the first city of the Atmorans, who would later be known as Nords. After their arrival, the Atmorans lived peacefully with the local Falmer. However, fearing that the Atmoran expansion would surpass their own, the Falmer destroyed the city, and only Ysgramor and his two sons escaped the carnage. The destruction of the city was later avenged when Ysgramor returned with his famed warriors, the Five Hundred Companions. Several expeditions have been carried out by archaeologists from the College of Winterhold to study the ancient ruins of Saarthal. During these excavations, several cranial series were uncovered. Anthropologists from the College of Winterhold have noted increased hypermorphy in the ancient Atmorans relative to their modern Nord descendants, including larger brow ridges, much larger teeth, very wide bigonial and bicondylar widths, wider and taller faces, a more archaic low orbital shape, more defined upper facial relief, slightly wider nasal apertures, and slightly weaker chin protrusion. The skulls were predominantly dolichocephalic and very thick, but interestingly had relatively small mastoid processes. Later morphogenetic processes, including admixture with the Mer, and environmental factors such as a more agriculture-based lifestyle, played a role in the gracilization of the Atmorans. Among modern cranial series, the Nords of the Pale, Winterhold, and northern Eastmarch cluster closest to the Atmorans of Saarthal, along with some cranial series from Colovia. The reconstructed man, about 40 years old, stood around 190 cm tall and was massively built. He was found in the lower layers of Saarthal along with some Ancient Nord gear, including a full set of ancient Nord armor, an ancient Nord sword and an ancient Nord amulet with a One-Handed enchantment. Postcranial data shows magicka-related trauma, which was likely the cause of his demise.

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Facial reconstruction based on skh001, a 6,400-year-old woman from Skhirat-Rouazi, Morocco The individual was buried in a supine position with slight rightward lateralization, oriented north–south. The head was in anterior and right lateral flexion, originally directed upward and slightly toward the northeast. The body was tightly arranged: upper limbs close to the torso, with the right forearm flexed toward the face and the left arm extended toward the pelvis. The lower limbs were strongly flexed (heels near the buttocks), likely due to constraints of the burial pit. At least four ceramic vessels were present in the burial: one complete vessel placed on the pelvis, with others intentionally broken and deposited around the abdominal and lumbar regions. Additional fragments in the thoracic area derive from these vessels. A pebble was found near the left elbow. The fill consisted of reddish silty sediment with localized gray-black deposits (possibly manganese or ash). She was approximately 158 cm tall and carried mtDNA haplogroup M1a1b. Her autosomal DNA was mainly composed of Levant_N-like and Natufian-like ancestry, with some, likely local, Iberomaurusian component.

Facial reconstruction based on skh001, a 6,400-year-old woman from Skhirat-Rouazi, Morocco The individual was buried in a supine position with slight rightward lateralization, oriented north–south. The head was in anterior and right lateral flexion, originally directed upward and slightly toward the northeast. The body was tightly arranged: upper limbs close to the torso, with the right forearm flexed toward the face and the left arm extended toward the pelvis. The lower limbs were strongly flexed (heels near the buttocks), likely due to constraints of the burial pit. At least four ceramic vessels were present in the burial: one complete vessel placed on the pelvis, with others intentionally broken and deposited around the abdominal and lumbar regions. Additional fragments in the thoracic area derive from these vessels. A pebble was found near the left elbow. The fill consisted of reddish silty sediment with localized gray-black deposits (possibly manganese or ash). She was approximately 158 cm tall and carried mtDNA haplogroup M1a1b. Her autosomal DNA was mainly composed of Levant_N-like and Natufian-like ancestry, with some, likely local, Iberomaurusian component.

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Facial reconstruction of a 4,200-year-old Catacomb culture man from kurgan 1 in Snihurivka, Ukraine The Catacomb culture was a continuation of the Yamnaya culture. Catacomb culture covers the end of the 3rd millennium to the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. It is distributed in the southern regions of the East European Plain, from the Manych River and the North Caucasus to the Dnieper. Within the Catacomb culture, as in the Yamnaya culture, such local variants are distinguished: the Lower Dnieper, the North Azov, the Middle Dnieper, as well as the Donetsk (or Middle Donets), the Volga–Manych (also known as the Pre-Caucasian culture) (Popova, 1955; Lagodovskaya, 1957; Klein, 1961). Close to them is the Poltavka culture. (Konduktorova, 1973) Skulls of the Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures are characterized on average by dolichocrany, although in some skulls mesocrany and brachycrany are observed. The cranial capacity is large. The longitudinal and vertical diameters are large, while the transverse diameter is medium. The relief is strongly developed. The glabella, external occipital protuberance, and mastoid processes are well expressed. The slope of the forehead is pronounced. The face is broad and of medium height; according to the index, however, it is low and orthognathic. Horizontal facial profiling is sharply expressed. The orbits are low. The nose is of medium width and strongly projecting. The nasal bridge protrudes sharply. The canine fossae are deep. It should be noted, however, that when comparing Catacomb with Yamnaya series, the formers relief is somewhat less pronounced, and the angle of the forehead is smaller. (Konduktorova, 1973)

Facial reconstruction of a 4,200-year-old Catacomb culture man from kurgan 1 in Snihurivka, Ukraine The Catacomb culture was a continuation of the Yamnaya culture. Catacomb culture covers the end of the 3rd millennium to the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. It is distributed in the southern regions of the East European Plain, from the Manych River and the North Caucasus to the Dnieper. Within the Catacomb culture, as in the Yamnaya culture, such local variants are distinguished: the Lower Dnieper, the North Azov, the Middle Dnieper, as well as the Donetsk (or Middle Donets), the Volga–Manych (also known as the Pre-Caucasian culture) (Popova, 1955; Lagodovskaya, 1957; Klein, 1961). Close to them is the Poltavka culture. (Konduktorova, 1973) Skulls of the Yamnaya and Catacomb cultures are characterized on average by dolichocrany, although in some skulls mesocrany and brachycrany are observed. The cranial capacity is large. The longitudinal and vertical diameters are large, while the transverse diameter is medium. The relief is strongly developed. The glabella, external occipital protuberance, and mastoid processes are well expressed. The slope of the forehead is pronounced. The face is broad and of medium height; according to the index, however, it is low and orthognathic. Horizontal facial profiling is sharply expressed. The orbits are low. The nose is of medium width and strongly projecting. The nasal bridge protrudes sharply. The canine fossae are deep. It should be noted, however, that when comparing Catacomb with Yamnaya series, the formers relief is somewhat less pronounced, and the angle of the forehead is smaller. (Konduktorova, 1973)

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Facial reconstructions of a 2,400-year-old man and a 1,200-year-old man from the same kurgan in Kazakhstan The Rakhat burial ground is located on a large floodplain terrace near the river of the same name, within the Enbekshikazakh District of the Almaty Region. It consists of several chains of kurgan groups oriented along a southwest-northeast axis. The main burial of the kurgan (number 3), dated to Saka period Iron Age, contained a man with a hyperdolichocephalic cranium characterized by a very small cranial breadth of 130 mm and a large cranial length of 186 mm. He had medium cheekbone breadth of 126 mm, low eye orbits, a narrow nose, and an overall small mandible. His estimated stature ranges from 169.1 cm to 174.3 cm. The intrusive (inlet) burial of the kurgan dates to the Early Medieval Turkic period. It contained a man with a mesocephalic cranium, with a very large cranial breadth of 149 mm and large length of 188 mm, wide cheekbone width of 144 mm, medium-tall eye orbits, a very wide nose, facial flattening, and a large mandible. His estimated stature ranges from 153.8 cm to 159.8 cm. Thus, an interesting fact is recorded in Kurgan No. 3 of the Rakhat burial ground: the two individuals discovered within it belong to different anthropological types. The lower individual (from the primary burial) displays characteristics common in the Bronze Age and less frequent in the Early Iron Age - a pronounced Europoid appearance. The upper individual (from the intrusive burial) exhibits a pronounced East Asian appearance characteristic of the medieval period. (Sergei Ivanov and Egor Kitov, 2018)

Facial reconstructions of a 2,400-year-old man and a 1,200-year-old man from the same kurgan in Kazakhstan The Rakhat burial ground is located on a large floodplain terrace near the river of the same name, within the Enbekshikazakh District of the Almaty Region. It consists of several chains of kurgan groups oriented along a southwest-northeast axis. The main burial of the kurgan (number 3), dated to Saka period Iron Age, contained a man with a hyperdolichocephalic cranium characterized by a very small cranial breadth of 130 mm and a large cranial length of 186 mm. He had medium cheekbone breadth of 126 mm, low eye orbits, a narrow nose, and an overall small mandible. His estimated stature ranges from 169.1 cm to 174.3 cm. The intrusive (inlet) burial of the kurgan dates to the Early Medieval Turkic period. It contained a man with a mesocephalic cranium, with a very large cranial breadth of 149 mm and large length of 188 mm, wide cheekbone width of 144 mm, medium-tall eye orbits, a very wide nose, facial flattening, and a large mandible. His estimated stature ranges from 153.8 cm to 159.8 cm. Thus, an interesting fact is recorded in Kurgan No. 3 of the Rakhat burial ground: the two individuals discovered within it belong to different anthropological types. The lower individual (from the primary burial) displays characteristics common in the Bronze Age and less frequent in the Early Iron Age - a pronounced Europoid appearance. The upper individual (from the intrusive burial) exhibits a pronounced East Asian appearance characteristic of the medieval period. (Sergei Ivanov and Egor Kitov, 2018)

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Facial reconstruction of a 5,100-year-old Afanasievan from Mongolia with Yamnaya-like auDNA He carried Y-DNA haplogroup J1a2b and mtDNA U5a1. His maternal lineage, associated with European hunter-gatherers, was widespread among Indo-Europeans. His paternal lineage, J1a2b, has been previously detected in the Khvalynsk culture; a downstream of this haplogroup also dominates the Y-DNA of the Kura-Araxes culture, possibly suggesting a dispersal of J1a2b from the Caucasus into the Steppe, where a related branch persisted and became the main haplogroup of the Kura-Araxes culture. The man, belonging to the Paleoeuropoid/Protoeuropoid type, stood roughly 180 cm tall (498mm femur length) and possessed a notably massive and robust skull, with a very long cranial length of 193 mm, massive cranial width of 151 mm, and a very broad cheekbone width of 147 mm. In Inner Asia, the Bronze Age begins with the emergence of the Afanasievo culture, which spread across vast regions of southern Siberia and Central Asia. Its sites are known from western and central Mongolia, eastern Kazakhstan, the Dzungarian Basin, and even the Middle Zarafshan, though the highest concentration lies in the Altai and the Minusinsk Basin. AMS radiocarbon dates place the Afanasievo horizon between 3300–2500 BCE. Both anthropological and ancient DNA evidence indicate that the Afanasievo culture arose from a migration of populations from Eastern Europe, specifically from the Yamnaya cultural sphere (Solodovnikov et al. 2023). The Altai Afanasievo individuals rank among the tallest ancient populations of Eurasia (Solodovnikov et al. 2018). A similarly tall stature is seen among Afanasievo individuals from central Mongolia, based on limited material from the Shatar-Chuluu cemetery (where the reconstructed individual was found) near the Khangai range (Tumen 1978; Solodovnikov, Erdene 2022). Two published Afanasievo individuals have been identified as fifth-degree relatives. One was buried at Inskaya Dol in the northwestern Altai (I11752, BARN-039) [Narasimhan et al. 2019], and the other at the Shatar-Chuluu cemetery in central Mongolia (SHT002, AT-25 (I6221, the reconstructed individual)) [Jeong et al. 2020; Ringbauer et al. 2023]. Although these sites lie 1,410 km apart, both individuals share the characteristic Afanasievo/Yamnaya genetic profile and cluster closely with other Afanasievo samples. Their biological relationship implies that at least one ancestor in their family line must have traveled several hundred kilometers within their lifetime.

Facial reconstruction of a 5,100-year-old Afanasievan from Mongolia with Yamnaya-like auDNA He carried Y-DNA haplogroup J1a2b and mtDNA U5a1. His maternal lineage, associated with European hunter-gatherers, was widespread among Indo-Europeans. His paternal lineage, J1a2b, has been previously detected in the Khvalynsk culture; a downstream of this haplogroup also dominates the Y-DNA of the Kura-Araxes culture, possibly suggesting a dispersal of J1a2b from the Caucasus into the Steppe, where a related branch persisted and became the main haplogroup of the Kura-Araxes culture. The man, belonging to the Paleoeuropoid/Protoeuropoid type, stood roughly 180 cm tall (498mm femur length) and possessed a notably massive and robust skull, with a very long cranial length of 193 mm, massive cranial width of 151 mm, and a very broad cheekbone width of 147 mm. In Inner Asia, the Bronze Age begins with the emergence of the Afanasievo culture, which spread across vast regions of southern Siberia and Central Asia. Its sites are known from western and central Mongolia, eastern Kazakhstan, the Dzungarian Basin, and even the Middle Zarafshan, though the highest concentration lies in the Altai and the Minusinsk Basin. AMS radiocarbon dates place the Afanasievo horizon between 3300–2500 BCE. Both anthropological and ancient DNA evidence indicate that the Afanasievo culture arose from a migration of populations from Eastern Europe, specifically from the Yamnaya cultural sphere (Solodovnikov et al. 2023). The Altai Afanasievo individuals rank among the tallest ancient populations of Eurasia (Solodovnikov et al. 2018). A similarly tall stature is seen among Afanasievo individuals from central Mongolia, based on limited material from the Shatar-Chuluu cemetery (where the reconstructed individual was found) near the Khangai range (Tumen 1978; Solodovnikov, Erdene 2022). Two published Afanasievo individuals have been identified as fifth-degree relatives. One was buried at Inskaya Dol in the northwestern Altai (I11752, BARN-039) [Narasimhan et al. 2019], and the other at the Shatar-Chuluu cemetery in central Mongolia (SHT002, AT-25 (I6221, the reconstructed individual)) [Jeong et al. 2020; Ringbauer et al. 2023]. Although these sites lie 1,410 km apart, both individuals share the characteristic Afanasievo/Yamnaya genetic profile and cluster closely with other Afanasievo samples. Their biological relationship implies that at least one ancestor in their family line must have traveled several hundred kilometers within their lifetime.

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Facial reconstruction of a 2,400-year-old Scythian from Serbki kurgan, Odesa region, Ukraine The Scythians, also known as the Saka, were an Iranic-speaking people who originated in the regions of Minusinsk, the Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, and Xinjiang. Their westward migration is linked to the broader development of steppe nomadic cultures. In the Pontic-Caspian steppe, the Chernogorovka horizon (10th-8th c. BC) is considered the earliest “pre-Scythian” stage, followed by the Novocherkassk phase (8th-7th c. BC), after which the Classical Scythian culture appears. Their migration and settlement in the West led to admixture with various local populations, depending on their location and time period, including the late Srubnaya, Kobanians, para-Balto-Slavs, Greeks, Thracians, and others. Georgy Debets describes the Kherson (Kherson Governorate) Scythian skulls as showing significant morphological diversity compared to those of the Ploughing Scythians (a largely local para-Balto-Slavic population, distinct from the nomadic "Royal Scythians"), but all remain within the European range. It shows mostly dolichocranial skulls with some brachycranial admixture, and variation in size, forehead form, and brow development. The material, excavated by Ebert at Maritsyn kurgans and analyzed by Schliz (1913), was initially misattributed to Greek (Ionian) colonists of Olbia - an interpretation Debets rejects on archaeological grounds, since kurgan burials are not Greek despite abundant Greek trade goods. Schliz divided the skulls into several speculative types (Mediterranean, Celtic-like brachycranial, Nordic, and a single “Kyrgyz-like” form), but Debets considers these classifications unconvincing and methodologically flawed - "In this last case ("Kyrgyz-like"), one cannot agree with Schliz at all, especially since in describing the facial skeleton of this skull he himself notes Sub-saharan (!) traits. Schliz’s assumptions about the Gauls, as well as his separation of Mediterranean and northern components, etc., are no less fanciful" Later reanalysis by Stoyanovsky similarly identified mixed racial types (Paleoasiatic, Pacific, Mediterranean, Armenoid), but without reliable metric basis. Overall, Debets concludes the series contain a significant brachycranial component (about 35%) supporting a mixed Europoid Scythian population distinct from the Dnieper group (Debets, 1948).

Facial reconstruction of a 2,400-year-old Scythian from Serbki kurgan, Odesa region, Ukraine The Scythians, also known as the Saka, were an Iranic-speaking people who originated in the regions of Minusinsk, the Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, and Xinjiang. Their westward migration is linked to the broader development of steppe nomadic cultures. In the Pontic-Caspian steppe, the Chernogorovka horizon (10th-8th c. BC) is considered the earliest “pre-Scythian” stage, followed by the Novocherkassk phase (8th-7th c. BC), after which the Classical Scythian culture appears. Their migration and settlement in the West led to admixture with various local populations, depending on their location and time period, including the late Srubnaya, Kobanians, para-Balto-Slavs, Greeks, Thracians, and others. Georgy Debets describes the Kherson (Kherson Governorate) Scythian skulls as showing significant morphological diversity compared to those of the Ploughing Scythians (a largely local para-Balto-Slavic population, distinct from the nomadic "Royal Scythians"), but all remain within the European range. It shows mostly dolichocranial skulls with some brachycranial admixture, and variation in size, forehead form, and brow development. The material, excavated by Ebert at Maritsyn kurgans and analyzed by Schliz (1913), was initially misattributed to Greek (Ionian) colonists of Olbia - an interpretation Debets rejects on archaeological grounds, since kurgan burials are not Greek despite abundant Greek trade goods. Schliz divided the skulls into several speculative types (Mediterranean, Celtic-like brachycranial, Nordic, and a single “Kyrgyz-like” form), but Debets considers these classifications unconvincing and methodologically flawed - "In this last case ("Kyrgyz-like"), one cannot agree with Schliz at all, especially since in describing the facial skeleton of this skull he himself notes Sub-saharan (!) traits. Schliz’s assumptions about the Gauls, as well as his separation of Mediterranean and northern components, etc., are no less fanciful" Later reanalysis by Stoyanovsky similarly identified mixed racial types (Paleoasiatic, Pacific, Mediterranean, Armenoid), but without reliable metric basis. Overall, Debets concludes the series contain a significant brachycranial component (about 35%) supporting a mixed Europoid Scythian population distinct from the Dnieper group (Debets, 1948).

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Facial reconstruction of a 4,000-year-old EHG woman In 1934, O. N. Bader and M. V. Voevodsky identified the Balakhna culture (now considered a part of the Comb Ceramic culture), a distinct Neolithic cultural region in the lower Oka River basin. This area was a sandy, marshy lowland rich in lakes, rivers, fish, and wildlife, making it ideal for dense populations of hunter-fisher groups. Settlements were not random but formed localized clusters near water sources. Most sites were temporary seasonal camps used by small groups, while each cluster also had one or two permanent settlements with dwellings and workshops. This pattern likely reflects kin-based group organization. Faunal remains show that fishing was the main subsistence activity, followed by hunting (especially moose, boar, and waterfowl). The stone tool industry is distinctive: dominated by small flake tools, especially steep-edged scrapers, with strong links to earlier microlithic (Azilian–Tardenoisian) traditions. Large macrolithic tools are absent. Ceramics are common, and tools were made from varied flint types. The Balakhna culture interacted with the neighboring Volosovo culture, producing mixed and transitional sites, though both retained distinct technological traditions. Over time, their differences gradually diminished. In 1945–1946, I. K. Tsvetkova excavated the Gavrilovka site , a combined settlement and burial ground near Dzerzhinsk. Six burials were found within the cultural layer, indicating they were contemporaneous with the settlement. The dead were buried on their backs without grave goods, likely directly within or near dwellings. One well-preserved skull allowed reconstruction. It was small and gracile, with an extremely narrow face and very strong prognathism. The features showed some “equatorial” traits. The anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov describes the individual as follows: The skull is notably small, with a very delicate facial skeleton and extremely strong prognathism. A narrow, convex forehead, pronounced parietal bosses, and slight occipital projection give it a rhomboid shape. The cranial vault is relatively high, and in frontal view the skull appears ovoid, with a facial width (118 mm) much narrower than the cranial breadth (143 mm). The brow ridges are weak, and the low rounded forehead slightly overhangs the nasal root. The nasal bones are simple and concave, forming a broad, flattened bridge; the nasal opening is short and heart-shaped. The orbits are rounded, and the cheekbones are gracile but distinctive, with deep canine fossae that create sharp orbital margins and pronounced lateral projection. The upper jaw is strongly prognathic, further emphasized by projecting incisors and deep fossae; the lower jaw is relatively robust but with a short ramus and weakly projecting rounded chin. The degree of prognathism is exceptionally high, exceeding typical averages, though somewhat offset by the projecting nasal region. The reconstructed face is very narrow, with a small convex forehead, small eyes, and a short, broad, slightly upturned nose. The mouth is wide and strongly projecting, with full lips and a well-defined upper lip. The chin is broad and rounded, and the cheeks are slightly shortened and full. Despite some coarse features, the face has a certain soft gracility. Gerasimov notes some “Malay-like” traits but does not assign a clear ethnic classification. Other remains suggest the population was morphologically uniform, though poorly preserved. (Gerasimov 1949, 1955)

Facial reconstruction of a 4,000-year-old EHG woman In 1934, O. N. Bader and M. V. Voevodsky identified the Balakhna culture (now considered a part of the Comb Ceramic culture), a distinct Neolithic cultural region in the lower Oka River basin. This area was a sandy, marshy lowland rich in lakes, rivers, fish, and wildlife, making it ideal for dense populations of hunter-fisher groups. Settlements were not random but formed localized clusters near water sources. Most sites were temporary seasonal camps used by small groups, while each cluster also had one or two permanent settlements with dwellings and workshops. This pattern likely reflects kin-based group organization. Faunal remains show that fishing was the main subsistence activity, followed by hunting (especially moose, boar, and waterfowl). The stone tool industry is distinctive: dominated by small flake tools, especially steep-edged scrapers, with strong links to earlier microlithic (Azilian–Tardenoisian) traditions. Large macrolithic tools are absent. Ceramics are common, and tools were made from varied flint types. The Balakhna culture interacted with the neighboring Volosovo culture, producing mixed and transitional sites, though both retained distinct technological traditions. Over time, their differences gradually diminished. In 1945–1946, I. K. Tsvetkova excavated the Gavrilovka site , a combined settlement and burial ground near Dzerzhinsk. Six burials were found within the cultural layer, indicating they were contemporaneous with the settlement. The dead were buried on their backs without grave goods, likely directly within or near dwellings. One well-preserved skull allowed reconstruction. It was small and gracile, with an extremely narrow face and very strong prognathism. The features showed some “equatorial” traits. The anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov describes the individual as follows: The skull is notably small, with a very delicate facial skeleton and extremely strong prognathism. A narrow, convex forehead, pronounced parietal bosses, and slight occipital projection give it a rhomboid shape. The cranial vault is relatively high, and in frontal view the skull appears ovoid, with a facial width (118 mm) much narrower than the cranial breadth (143 mm). The brow ridges are weak, and the low rounded forehead slightly overhangs the nasal root. The nasal bones are simple and concave, forming a broad, flattened bridge; the nasal opening is short and heart-shaped. The orbits are rounded, and the cheekbones are gracile but distinctive, with deep canine fossae that create sharp orbital margins and pronounced lateral projection. The upper jaw is strongly prognathic, further emphasized by projecting incisors and deep fossae; the lower jaw is relatively robust but with a short ramus and weakly projecting rounded chin. The degree of prognathism is exceptionally high, exceeding typical averages, though somewhat offset by the projecting nasal region. The reconstructed face is very narrow, with a small convex forehead, small eyes, and a short, broad, slightly upturned nose. The mouth is wide and strongly projecting, with full lips and a well-defined upper lip. The chin is broad and rounded, and the cheeks are slightly shortened and full. Despite some coarse features, the face has a certain soft gracility. Gerasimov notes some “Malay-like” traits but does not assign a clear ethnic classification. Other remains suggest the population was morphologically uniform, though poorly preserved. (Gerasimov 1949, 1955)

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Facial reconstruction of Kostenki14, a 35,000-year-old man from Voronezh The man from the Upper Paleolithic site of Kostenki 14 (Markina Gora) represents one of the oldest known Homo sapiens burials in Europe. His skeleton is exceptionally well preserved, comparable only to the famous Sungir burials. He was buried in a shallow oval grave without grave goods, though nearby layers contained early Upper Paleolithic stone tools. Anthropological analysis showed that he was unusually short for his era - about 160 cm tall. His cranial capacity was likewise very small, at around 1200 cm³. The description of the skull is published by G. F. Debets in the article “Paleoanthropological finds in Kostenki,” where he notes features of an equatorial type, both in the structure of the skull and in the bones of the skeleton of the individual from Markina Gora. One cannot fail to note the great similarity of the skeletons from the Grimaldi grotto with the skeleton from Markina Gora; it is appropriate to recall the very similar form of burial practice in these archaeologically distant sites. Researchers identified numerous health abnormalities. His long bones had extremely reduced marrow cavities, and he likely suffered from calcium deficiency, sensory disorders, vision problems, chronic pain, cramps, and numbness. He also had serious spinal damage caused by blunt-force trauma, possibly from an animal attack or a fall. Additional injuries to the head and jaw may have come from the same event. Despite these conditions, his skeleton shows clear signs of intense hunting activity. He was likely a skilled spear or dart thrower, right-handed (characteristic of the Stone Age, when left-handed individuals were practically not encountered), and physically active like other Stone Age hunters. Tooth wear and isotope analysis indicate a diet of tough foods typical of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers. Further study suggested chronic inflammation affecting the brain, especially the right hemisphere. Researchers proposed that he may have experienced cognitive or behavioral impairments, such as speech difficulties, problems understanding others, and social isolation. Examination of the pelvis revealed that he most likely died from a deep abdominal wound that caused massive blood loss shortly before death. His burial posture was highly unusual: the legs were tightly drawn to the abdomen and the arms pressed against the chest, suggesting the body had been tightly wrapped or restrained. Ochre was heavily concentrated around the head. Researchers believe the burial reflects either a unique ritual practice or his unusual social status. Some have suggested that his severe condition and behavior in his final days may even have led to his death at the hands of his own group. (Mednikova M. B., Moiseev V. G., Khartanovich V. I., 2014), (Khartanovich V. I., Moiseev V. G., Mednikova M. B. et al., 2016), (Trinkaus E., Buzhilova A. P., Mednikova M. B., and Dobrovolskaya M. V., 2014), (Caffey M. D., 1967), (Tilley L., 2015), (Trinkaus E., Buzhilova A. P., 2018), (M.M. Gerasimov, 1955), (Наука из первых рук, 2019, Vol. 82, No. 2)

Facial reconstruction of Kostenki14, a 35,000-year-old man from Voronezh The man from the Upper Paleolithic site of Kostenki 14 (Markina Gora) represents one of the oldest known Homo sapiens burials in Europe. His skeleton is exceptionally well preserved, comparable only to the famous Sungir burials. He was buried in a shallow oval grave without grave goods, though nearby layers contained early Upper Paleolithic stone tools. Anthropological analysis showed that he was unusually short for his era - about 160 cm tall. His cranial capacity was likewise very small, at around 1200 cm³. The description of the skull is published by G. F. Debets in the article “Paleoanthropological finds in Kostenki,” where he notes features of an equatorial type, both in the structure of the skull and in the bones of the skeleton of the individual from Markina Gora. One cannot fail to note the great similarity of the skeletons from the Grimaldi grotto with the skeleton from Markina Gora; it is appropriate to recall the very similar form of burial practice in these archaeologically distant sites. Researchers identified numerous health abnormalities. His long bones had extremely reduced marrow cavities, and he likely suffered from calcium deficiency, sensory disorders, vision problems, chronic pain, cramps, and numbness. He also had serious spinal damage caused by blunt-force trauma, possibly from an animal attack or a fall. Additional injuries to the head and jaw may have come from the same event. Despite these conditions, his skeleton shows clear signs of intense hunting activity. He was likely a skilled spear or dart thrower, right-handed (characteristic of the Stone Age, when left-handed individuals were practically not encountered), and physically active like other Stone Age hunters. Tooth wear and isotope analysis indicate a diet of tough foods typical of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers. Further study suggested chronic inflammation affecting the brain, especially the right hemisphere. Researchers proposed that he may have experienced cognitive or behavioral impairments, such as speech difficulties, problems understanding others, and social isolation. Examination of the pelvis revealed that he most likely died from a deep abdominal wound that caused massive blood loss shortly before death. His burial posture was highly unusual: the legs were tightly drawn to the abdomen and the arms pressed against the chest, suggesting the body had been tightly wrapped or restrained. Ochre was heavily concentrated around the head. Researchers believe the burial reflects either a unique ritual practice or his unusual social status. Some have suggested that his severe condition and behavior in his final days may even have led to his death at the hands of his own group. (Mednikova M. B., Moiseev V. G., Khartanovich V. I., 2014), (Khartanovich V. I., Moiseev V. G., Mednikova M. B. et al., 2016), (Trinkaus E., Buzhilova A. P., Mednikova M. B., and Dobrovolskaya M. V., 2014), (Caffey M. D., 1967), (Tilley L., 2015), (Trinkaus E., Buzhilova A. P., 2018), (M.M. Gerasimov, 1955), (Наука из первых рук, 2019, Vol. 82, No. 2)

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Facial reconstruction of a 3,600-year-old Mycenaean Greek In the middle of the 20th century, archaeologists discovered in Mycenae Grave Circle B, another royal cemetery that preceded Grave Circle A. The burial complex was discovered accidentally in 1951 when workers were excavating a nearby 13th-century BCE tomb known as the Tomb of Clytemnestra. Grave Circle B consists of 26 graves, dated to 1675–1550 BC, including 14 shaft graves. The shafts, up to 12 meters deep, were marked by burial mounds or stone stelae. The cemetery was probably used for about 100 years. The remains of 35 individuals were found in the graves. The large number of undisturbed graves allowed archaeologists to gain insight into the life of the Mycenaean elite of that time. In the women’s graves, many ornaments were found: earrings, necklaces, and gold and silver pins. Alongside the male skeletons were swords, daggers, and arrowheads; men’s clothing was decorated with gold. In one of the graves, a helmet made entirely of boar’s tusks was discovered. There are more female skeletons than male ones, and overall the female burials are richer. A unique find is a posthumous mask made of electrum, which was not placed on the deceased’s face but kept in a wooden box beside him. Another interesting artifact is a duck-shaped bowl made of rock crystal. Unlike the remains from Grave Circle A, the skeletons from the burials of Grave Circle B are well preserved. The bones of the men show traces of combat injuries, suggesting that some of these individuals likely died in battle. As early as the 1950s, it was suggested that members of several (probably four) noble families were buried in Cemetery B over 3–4 generations. To test this hypothesis, in 1995 anthropologists reconstructed faces from seven skulls found in the burials. Researchers discovered a clear resemblance between two individuals — Z59 and F51 — and divided the seven buried individuals into three groups: “heart-shaped,” “elongated,” and “beak-shaped” faces. In 2008, a genetic study was conducted on 22 skeletons from Grave Circle A. Samples were taken from mandibles and clavicles. Mitochondrial DNA was successfully obtained from four individuals, showing that a man and woman from the same grave (where the posthumous mask was found) were brother and sister. Researchers believe that both men and women of the royal lineage in this ancient society inherited power by right of birth. The skull of an individual from grave Sigma (Σ131) is particularly well preserved. It is the only one in which the lower jaw was present. It is believed that he may have been the founder of the dynasty that established this cemetery, since his grave is one of the earliest in Circle B. There were no pottery or metal objects in his grave, but the burial was marked by a large heap of stones. The anthropologist Lawrence Angel reckoned that he lived to be about 55 years old, judging from the exostoses on his shoulders and feet. Although today these would not be considered precise indicators of age—and his dental age may have been slightly younger than 55—he was still the oldest of all those buried in Circle B. Angel described him as a massively built man, big enough to draw attention in a crowd, and estimated his height at 1.75 m. He suffered from osteoporosis and had a large abscess above the upper right permanent lateral incisor.

Facial reconstruction of a 3,600-year-old Mycenaean Greek In the middle of the 20th century, archaeologists discovered in Mycenae Grave Circle B, another royal cemetery that preceded Grave Circle A. The burial complex was discovered accidentally in 1951 when workers were excavating a nearby 13th-century BCE tomb known as the Tomb of Clytemnestra. Grave Circle B consists of 26 graves, dated to 1675–1550 BC, including 14 shaft graves. The shafts, up to 12 meters deep, were marked by burial mounds or stone stelae. The cemetery was probably used for about 100 years. The remains of 35 individuals were found in the graves. The large number of undisturbed graves allowed archaeologists to gain insight into the life of the Mycenaean elite of that time. In the women’s graves, many ornaments were found: earrings, necklaces, and gold and silver pins. Alongside the male skeletons were swords, daggers, and arrowheads; men’s clothing was decorated with gold. In one of the graves, a helmet made entirely of boar’s tusks was discovered. There are more female skeletons than male ones, and overall the female burials are richer. A unique find is a posthumous mask made of electrum, which was not placed on the deceased’s face but kept in a wooden box beside him. Another interesting artifact is a duck-shaped bowl made of rock crystal. Unlike the remains from Grave Circle A, the skeletons from the burials of Grave Circle B are well preserved. The bones of the men show traces of combat injuries, suggesting that some of these individuals likely died in battle. As early as the 1950s, it was suggested that members of several (probably four) noble families were buried in Cemetery B over 3–4 generations. To test this hypothesis, in 1995 anthropologists reconstructed faces from seven skulls found in the burials. Researchers discovered a clear resemblance between two individuals — Z59 and F51 — and divided the seven buried individuals into three groups: “heart-shaped,” “elongated,” and “beak-shaped” faces. In 2008, a genetic study was conducted on 22 skeletons from Grave Circle A. Samples were taken from mandibles and clavicles. Mitochondrial DNA was successfully obtained from four individuals, showing that a man and woman from the same grave (where the posthumous mask was found) were brother and sister. Researchers believe that both men and women of the royal lineage in this ancient society inherited power by right of birth. The skull of an individual from grave Sigma (Σ131) is particularly well preserved. It is the only one in which the lower jaw was present. It is believed that he may have been the founder of the dynasty that established this cemetery, since his grave is one of the earliest in Circle B. There were no pottery or metal objects in his grave, but the burial was marked by a large heap of stones. The anthropologist Lawrence Angel reckoned that he lived to be about 55 years old, judging from the exostoses on his shoulders and feet. Although today these would not be considered precise indicators of age—and his dental age may have been slightly younger than 55—he was still the oldest of all those buried in Circle B. Angel described him as a massively built man, big enough to draw attention in a crowd, and estimated his height at 1.75 m. He suffered from osteoporosis and had a large abscess above the upper right permanent lateral incisor.

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Facial reconstruction of a 4,000-year-old Aryan girl from Samara This young woman (about 14-15 years old), from a collective burial at the Utyovka VI burial ground (kurgan 2, burial 6, Neftegorsky District, Samara Region), belonged to the Potapovka-Sintashta cultural block of the early Late Bronze Age. The Potapovka culture was a syncretism of the Abashevo and Poltavka cultures and was closely related to the Sintashta culture. Potapovka burial practices are highly diverse. Central graves are large (4.5–10 m³) and are surrounded by smaller peripheral burials. They feature wooden coverings, stepped walls, and internal pits or grooves. Some graves, such as Utyovka VI, contained complex wooden structures with horse sacrifices and dismantled chariots placed inside. Bodies were usually laid on the left side or on the back, slightly flexed, with bent arms. Grave goods at Utyovka VI are abundant and varied: numerous metal tools and weapons (knives, daggers, spearheads), ornaments (bracelets, pendants, beads), and stone tools for sharpening. Some items show Near Eastern connections. Rare silver and gold ornaments were also found. Burials often included full quivers with flint arrowheads (up to 16 per grave). Arrows were about 50 cm long, and bows up to 1 m, with a range of about 300 m. Clothing was decorated with beads made of metal, faience, and stone. A distinctive feature is the presence of antler cheekpieces (psalia), linked to horse gear and sometimes decorated, with parallels across the Eurasian steppe. Bone artifacts (arrowheads, beads, combs, discs) are also common and diverse (Vasiliev I.B., Kuznetsov P.F., Turetski M.A., 2000).

Facial reconstruction of a 4,000-year-old Aryan girl from Samara This young woman (about 14-15 years old), from a collective burial at the Utyovka VI burial ground (kurgan 2, burial 6, Neftegorsky District, Samara Region), belonged to the Potapovka-Sintashta cultural block of the early Late Bronze Age. The Potapovka culture was a syncretism of the Abashevo and Poltavka cultures and was closely related to the Sintashta culture. Potapovka burial practices are highly diverse. Central graves are large (4.5–10 m³) and are surrounded by smaller peripheral burials. They feature wooden coverings, stepped walls, and internal pits or grooves. Some graves, such as Utyovka VI, contained complex wooden structures with horse sacrifices and dismantled chariots placed inside. Bodies were usually laid on the left side or on the back, slightly flexed, with bent arms. Grave goods at Utyovka VI are abundant and varied: numerous metal tools and weapons (knives, daggers, spearheads), ornaments (bracelets, pendants, beads), and stone tools for sharpening. Some items show Near Eastern connections. Rare silver and gold ornaments were also found. Burials often included full quivers with flint arrowheads (up to 16 per grave). Arrows were about 50 cm long, and bows up to 1 m, with a range of about 300 m. Clothing was decorated with beads made of metal, faience, and stone. A distinctive feature is the presence of antler cheekpieces (psalia), linked to horse gear and sometimes decorated, with parallels across the Eurasian steppe. Bone artifacts (arrowheads, beads, combs, discs) are also common and diverse (Vasiliev I.B., Kuznetsov P.F., Turetski M.A., 2000).

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Facial reconstructions of a giant and a dwarf Scythian The giant was buried at Edirey 3, an Iron Age burial site located near the village of Edirey in Kazakhstan. He was afflicted by a hormonal disorder that resulted in his exceptional height, estimated at 200–215 cm, as well as an enlarged skull. He died at around 40–45 years of age and was interred with grave goods, including a small knife, several arrowheads, and a large bronze mirror (Beisenov, A., 2007). The dwarf, buried at Dogehe-Baary in Tuva, stood about 127 cm tall. This individual, dating to an early phase of the Scythian Uyuk-Sagly culture, suffered from pituitary dwarfism. His condition likely included a clumsy or limping gait, a barrel-shaped chest, scoliosis, chronic joint pain, and reduced mobility. These issues, together with the underdevelopment of the apophyses of the upper and lower limb bones, would have significantly limited his mobility and likely led to obesity. His cranium exhibits healed injuries, suggesting that he was the target of aggression; he may ultimately have died from a traumatic brain injury. Despite this, his age at death was no less than 45 years. Such longevity for an individual with pituitary dwarfism complicated by epiphyseal dysplasia is exceptional even by modern medical standards (Aristova, E.S., Chikisheva, T.A., Seidman, A.M. et al., 2006). The Scythians, also known as the Saka, were an Iranic-speaking people who originated in regions including Minusinsk, the Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, and Xinjiang.

Facial reconstructions of a giant and a dwarf Scythian The giant was buried at Edirey 3, an Iron Age burial site located near the village of Edirey in Kazakhstan. He was afflicted by a hormonal disorder that resulted in his exceptional height, estimated at 200–215 cm, as well as an enlarged skull. He died at around 40–45 years of age and was interred with grave goods, including a small knife, several arrowheads, and a large bronze mirror (Beisenov, A., 2007). The dwarf, buried at Dogehe-Baary in Tuva, stood about 127 cm tall. This individual, dating to an early phase of the Scythian Uyuk-Sagly culture, suffered from pituitary dwarfism. His condition likely included a clumsy or limping gait, a barrel-shaped chest, scoliosis, chronic joint pain, and reduced mobility. These issues, together with the underdevelopment of the apophyses of the upper and lower limb bones, would have significantly limited his mobility and likely led to obesity. His cranium exhibits healed injuries, suggesting that he was the target of aggression; he may ultimately have died from a traumatic brain injury. Despite this, his age at death was no less than 45 years. Such longevity for an individual with pituitary dwarfism complicated by epiphyseal dysplasia is exceptional even by modern medical standards (Aristova, E.S., Chikisheva, T.A., Seidman, A.M. et al., 2006). The Scythians, also known as the Saka, were an Iranic-speaking people who originated in regions including Minusinsk, the Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, and Xinjiang.

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Facial reconstruction of a 13,500-year-old WHG from Switzerland The “Bichon Man” was a young male, approximately 20 to 23 years old. His skeleton was discovered in 1956 about 15 meters from a cave entrance, alongside the remains of a female brown bear, flint arrowheads, and traces of charcoal. Evidence suggests the bear had been struck by arrows and retreated into the cave, where the hunter likely followed and attempted to drive it out using fire. The encounter appears to have ended fatally for the hunter. The Bichon Man stood about 1.64 meters tall and weighed just over 60 kg. From a broad evolutionary perspective, his features reflect a mix of archaic and modern human characteristics. Studies have focused on his health and diet. Overall, his condition was good, although he showed signs of long-term physical strain, possible joint issues, and nutritional stress visible in his teeth. Isotopic and dental analyses indicate a meat-heavy diet that was not highly abrasive. At the time of his death, he was a great consumer of meat and a vigorous walker, but he did not possess the robustness of his Upper Paleolithic ancestors. Broad and low-set, with prominent cheekbones and relatively open eye sockets, he displayed many hallmarks of a Cro-Magnon individual. He carried Y-DNA haplogroup I2a1a1b1b and mtDNA haplogroup U5b1. Unlike most WHG individuals, he had brown eyes.

Facial reconstruction of a 13,500-year-old WHG from Switzerland The “Bichon Man” was a young male, approximately 20 to 23 years old. His skeleton was discovered in 1956 about 15 meters from a cave entrance, alongside the remains of a female brown bear, flint arrowheads, and traces of charcoal. Evidence suggests the bear had been struck by arrows and retreated into the cave, where the hunter likely followed and attempted to drive it out using fire. The encounter appears to have ended fatally for the hunter. The Bichon Man stood about 1.64 meters tall and weighed just over 60 kg. From a broad evolutionary perspective, his features reflect a mix of archaic and modern human characteristics. Studies have focused on his health and diet. Overall, his condition was good, although he showed signs of long-term physical strain, possible joint issues, and nutritional stress visible in his teeth. Isotopic and dental analyses indicate a meat-heavy diet that was not highly abrasive. At the time of his death, he was a great consumer of meat and a vigorous walker, but he did not possess the robustness of his Upper Paleolithic ancestors. Broad and low-set, with prominent cheekbones and relatively open eye sockets, he displayed many hallmarks of a Cro-Magnon individual. He carried Y-DNA haplogroup I2a1a1b1b and mtDNA haplogroup U5b1. Unlike most WHG individuals, he had brown eyes.

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Facial reconstruction of a 7,000-year-old man from Eridu, Iraq He lived during the Ubaid period, a culture that flourished in Mesopotamia before the rise of the Sumerian cities. The Ubaid people are known for establishing some of the earliest settled communities in southern Iraq, laying the foundations for later urban civilization. The Ubaid culture emerged in southern Mesopotamia through a combination of local development and external influences, such as from Susiana, with additional contributions from northern traditions such as the Samarra culture (particularly irrigation), as well as contact with groups associated with the Arabian bifacial tradition. A Babylonian creation text says of Eridu: "All the lands were sea, then Eridu was made." The history of Eridu goes back to the Ubaid period. Its inhabitants lived largely by fishing. Their harbour was located in a marshy, semi-aquatic environment. During the Uruk period (which follows the Ubaid and represents a key stage in the development of early Mesopotamian urban civilization, preceding the fully historical Sumerian city-state period), there is still ample evidence of Eridu’s importance. However, from the beginning of the historical period, it no longer appears to have been a populous settlement. From the Third Dynasty of Ur onward, Eridu was not so much a city as a complex of religious buildings, raised high above the surrounding plain on an artificial platform. The Sumerians and Babylonians worshipped Ea (Enki) here, the god of wisdom and patron of craftsmen and artisans. He was regarded as the father of Marduk and a principal deity associated with the primordial waters. His name was also reflected in that of the city Dur-Ea and in personal names such as Ea-gamil. The earliest written source mentioning Eridu dates to the time of Ur-Nanshe, founder of the Lagash dynasty (c. 2500 BC). By the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Eridu had already undergone desiccation and was largely uninhabited. Ur-Nammu, the founder of the dynasty, cut a new channel to the Euphrates to bring water back to the area in an effort to repopulate it, and he also rebuilt Enki’s temple. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, Nebuchadnezzar I referred to himself as “Governor of Eridu.” By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, Eridu functioned more as a sacred site than as a major inhabited city. The Assyrian king Sargon II regarded the occupation of Eridu in 710 BC as a significant achievement. The man, who was about 40 years old, was described as belonging to the South Iraqi type, which still inhabits the region today. His skull was artificially deformed during his lifetime using circular bandages. He had a medium-large cranial length of 184 mm, a small cranial width of 123 mm, a medium-large cheekbone width of 134 mm, and a large condylar width (upper jaw width) of 132 mm. (Istvan Kiszely, 1978)

Facial reconstruction of a 7,000-year-old man from Eridu, Iraq He lived during the Ubaid period, a culture that flourished in Mesopotamia before the rise of the Sumerian cities. The Ubaid people are known for establishing some of the earliest settled communities in southern Iraq, laying the foundations for later urban civilization. The Ubaid culture emerged in southern Mesopotamia through a combination of local development and external influences, such as from Susiana, with additional contributions from northern traditions such as the Samarra culture (particularly irrigation), as well as contact with groups associated with the Arabian bifacial tradition. A Babylonian creation text says of Eridu: "All the lands were sea, then Eridu was made." The history of Eridu goes back to the Ubaid period. Its inhabitants lived largely by fishing. Their harbour was located in a marshy, semi-aquatic environment. During the Uruk period (which follows the Ubaid and represents a key stage in the development of early Mesopotamian urban civilization, preceding the fully historical Sumerian city-state period), there is still ample evidence of Eridu’s importance. However, from the beginning of the historical period, it no longer appears to have been a populous settlement. From the Third Dynasty of Ur onward, Eridu was not so much a city as a complex of religious buildings, raised high above the surrounding plain on an artificial platform. The Sumerians and Babylonians worshipped Ea (Enki) here, the god of wisdom and patron of craftsmen and artisans. He was regarded as the father of Marduk and a principal deity associated with the primordial waters. His name was also reflected in that of the city Dur-Ea and in personal names such as Ea-gamil. The earliest written source mentioning Eridu dates to the time of Ur-Nanshe, founder of the Lagash dynasty (c. 2500 BC). By the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Eridu had already undergone desiccation and was largely uninhabited. Ur-Nammu, the founder of the dynasty, cut a new channel to the Euphrates to bring water back to the area in an effort to repopulate it, and he also rebuilt Enki’s temple. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, Nebuchadnezzar I referred to himself as “Governor of Eridu.” By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, Eridu functioned more as a sacred site than as a major inhabited city. The Assyrian king Sargon II regarded the occupation of Eridu in 710 BC as a significant achievement. The man, who was about 40 years old, was described as belonging to the South Iraqi type, which still inhabits the region today. His skull was artificially deformed during his lifetime using circular bandages. He had a medium-large cranial length of 184 mm, a small cranial width of 123 mm, a medium-large cheekbone width of 134 mm, and a large condylar width (upper jaw width) of 132 mm. (Istvan Kiszely, 1978)

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Facial reconstructions of 2,500-year-old Maeotians from Northwest Caucasus The Maeotians and related tribes such as the Sindi and Kerketi were Northwest Caucasian peoples ancestral to the modern Circassians, Abkhazians, Abazins, and Ubykh. They developed from the Proto-Maeotian culture of Krasnodar - likely a syncretism of the Post-Dolmen Horizon with the Koban culture. The Maeotians played a role in the politics of the Bosporan Kingdom, and were tightly knit with the Scytho-Sarmatian world. The male was buried in the Tsemdolina necropolis in Krasnodar, which contained elite burials of the local administrative and military aristocracy who oversaw the Bosporan presence on the Abrau Peninsula. The site yielded numerous Scythian-style bronze artifacts, including zoomorphic pieces, and featured large underground pit-type tombs with horse burials. Horse burials were widespread in the Iron Age Caucasus, a custom either introduced by Scytho-Cimmerians or developed locally, and persisted long after disappearing in the western Steppe. This practice helps distinguish Maeotians from the later Iranic Steppe nomads. He is depicted with a bronze cuirass bearing the Gorgon Medusa, found in a Maeotian kurgan of the Kuban steppe, Elizavetsky burial ground. Although often viewed as a Greek motif, the golden gorgoneion from the Ulyap sanctuary suggests a local interpretation. Its resemblance to the Chechen and Ingush goddess Tusholi, worshiped as a fearsome mask, may indicate that the Maeotians saw the gorgoneion as a form of the Great Goddess. Among Caucasian peoples, including the Maeotians, who practiced ritual decapitation and venerated human heads, the gorgoneion likely carried additional cultic significance. The woman was buried at Lobanovaya Shchel, an Iron Age cemetery 9.9 km west of Abrau-Dyurso. The community practiced stone-cist burials that continue Bronze Age funerary traditions. Lobanovaya Shchel contained iron weapons, including spearheads and knives; locally made pottery alongside imported vessels and diverse ornaments including bronze sinusoidal pendants, torcs, signet rings, silver lunula pendants, glass, jet, and bone beads, and cowrie-shell pendants; and tools such as iron knives, an awl, a bronze needle, and ceramic and lead spindle whorls. She is depicted with a headdress associated with finds from the Karagodeuashhe kurgan, which reflects a high-status Maeotian burial tradition. In such elite graves, the deceased was placed in a prepared multi-chamber stone tomb, accompanied by ceremonial attire, weapons, a funerary wagon with horses, and additional horse sacrifice in a nearby dromos, with the chieftain and his wife buried in separate chambers.
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Facial reconstructions of 2,500-year-old Maeotians from Northwest Caucasus The Maeotians and related tribes such as the Sindi and Kerketi were Northwest Caucasian peoples ancestral to the modern Circassians, Abkhazians, Abazins, and Ubykh. They developed from the Proto-Maeotian culture of Krasnodar - likely a syncretism of the Post-Dolmen Horizon with the Koban culture. The Maeotians played a role in the politics of the Bosporan Kingdom, and were tightly knit with the Scytho-Sarmatian world. The male was buried in the Tsemdolina necropolis in Krasnodar, which contained elite burials of the local administrative and military aristocracy who oversaw the Bosporan presence on the Abrau Peninsula. The site yielded numerous Scythian-style bronze artifacts, including zoomorphic pieces, and featured large underground pit-type tombs with horse burials. Horse burials were widespread in the Iron Age Caucasus, a custom either introduced by Scytho-Cimmerians or developed locally, and persisted long after disappearing in the western Steppe. This practice helps distinguish Maeotians from the later Iranic Steppe nomads. He is depicted with a bronze cuirass bearing the Gorgon Medusa, found in a Maeotian kurgan of the Kuban steppe, Elizavetsky burial ground. Although often viewed as a Greek motif, the golden gorgoneion from the Ulyap sanctuary suggests a local interpretation. Its resemblance to the Chechen and Ingush goddess Tusholi, worshiped as a fearsome mask, may indicate that the Maeotians saw the gorgoneion as a form of the Great Goddess. Among Caucasian peoples, including the Maeotians, who practiced ritual decapitation and venerated human heads, the gorgoneion likely carried additional cultic significance. The woman was buried at Lobanovaya Shchel, an Iron Age cemetery 9.9 km west of Abrau-Dyurso. The community practiced stone-cist burials that continue Bronze Age funerary traditions. Lobanovaya Shchel contained iron weapons, including spearheads and knives; locally made pottery alongside imported vessels and diverse ornaments including bronze sinusoidal pendants, torcs, signet rings, silver lunula pendants, glass, jet, and bone beads, and cowrie-shell pendants; and tools such as iron knives, an awl, a bronze needle, and ceramic and lead spindle whorls. She is depicted with a headdress associated with finds from the Karagodeuashhe kurgan, which reflects a high-status Maeotian burial tradition. In such elite graves, the deceased was placed in a prepared multi-chamber stone tomb, accompanied by ceremonial attire, weapons, a funerary wagon with horses, and additional horse sacrifice in a nearby dromos, with the chieftain and his wife buried in separate chambers.

Ancestral Whispers

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Reconstructions based on 6,300-year-old early Proto-Indo-European elites from the Lower Don (Krivyanski I11828/I31755, Y-DNA J-M319, mtDNA T2a1b), and from Hungary—the first known horse rider (Csongrád I5124, Y-DNA Q-Y6802, mtDNA K1b2) The Krivyanski individual was buried in a round pit with a concave bottom, its floor covered in red ochre. The adult male lay on his back with knees raised, skull oriented NNE; the left arm was extended and the left thigh disturbed by a later grave cut. The burial position, grave goods, and date are characteristic of the Sredny Stog culture. The inventory included a retouched flint blade (its broken tip found deeper in the grave), two bifacial projectile points, and a bifacial axe-shaped blank. Additional displaced finds included another blade and the missing blade tip. The tools are patinated brown to gray flint with fine retouch and use-wear. He carried Y-haplogroup J2a (J-M319), linked to Caucasus populations such as the Maikop culture and Aknashen, but showed only older Mesolithic CHG ancestry. His mtDNA (T2a1b) was common among steppe groups. On PCA, he clustered close to the Yamnaya culture (Lazaridis et al. 2025). The Csongrád individual from Hungary, attributed to the Suvorovo culture, represents one of the earliest known cases showing osteological evidence consistent with riding, well before the classic Yamnaya horizon. He exhibited clear skeletal markers of habitual horseback riding, especially in the lower trunk and pelvic region, consistent with “horseman syndrome” (Trautmann et al. 2023). He carried Y-haplogroup Q-Y6802, linked to Khvalynsk. Autosomally, he was primarily Steppe Eneolithic, with a Khvalynsk grandparent—likely the source of his Y-DNA (Lazaridis et al. 2025). Culturally, some Steppe Eneolithic groups such as Berezhnevka are also attributed to the Khvalynsk culture (Khokhlov A.A., Gromov A.V., Grigoriev A.P., Kazarnitsky A.A., Kapinus Yu.O., Kitov E.P., 2024). In addition, horses were sacrificed and buried alongside cattle, sheep/goats, and humans at Khvalynsk, where no obviously wild mammals were included. Polished stone mace-heads shaped like horse heads proliferated across the steppes and spread into the Lower Danube valley between 4400–4000 BCE. Eneolithic horses, even if more skittish than modern ones, may have been ridden in quiet settings such as herding, allowing a mounted shepherd to oversee three times more sheep than a pedestrian one, producing a surplus useful for hosting feasts (Lazaridis et al. 2025). He is depicted with a “composite sword” from a related Giurgiulești burial in Moldova, which belonged to another Early Proto-Indo-European elite individual with Q1a Y-DNA (Blagoje Govedarica and Igor Manzura, Eurasia Antiqua 22, 2016 [2019]). The two individuals belonged to the Protoeuropoid type, a robust type that was widespread among the Ukr_N/Dnieper–Donets/Mariupol culture. This type is also documented in the early phase of the Rakushechny Yar culture in the Lower Don. This culture showed some similarities with the Mariupol culture, but also distinct differences, such as the absence of ochre (T.D. Balanovskaya, 1972, “Paleolithic and Neolithic of the USSR,” Volume 7). Samples from north of Rakushechny Yar, in the Middle Don (e.g., Golubaya Krinitsa, attributed to the Mariupol culture), show a substantial increase in CHG ancestry. This may indicate that the Neolithic Lower Don Rakushechny Yar culture (often linked by archaeologists to the Caucasus) was a possible source of CHG ancestry in Proto-Indo-Europeans, contributing, alongside the Dnieper-Donets/Mariupol culture, to the Protoeuropoid strain in early Steppe group, as well as to the majority of Proto-Indo-European ancestry. The migration of this Don population to the North Caucasus foothills, where they mixed with Mesopotamian-derived Caucasus farmers at Nalchik and its surroundings, and then to the Volga, where they mixed with local EHGs of the Ancienturalic strain, resulted in the Steppe Eneolithic proper genetic profile, which, after returning to the Don, formed the Proto-Indo-European Sredny Stog culture.
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Reconstructions based on 6,300-year-old early Proto-Indo-European elites from the Lower Don (Krivyanski I11828/I31755, Y-DNA J-M319, mtDNA T2a1b), and from Hungary—the first known horse rider (Csongrád I5124, Y-DNA Q-Y6802, mtDNA K1b2) The Krivyanski individual was buried in a round pit with a concave bottom, its floor covered in red ochre. The adult male lay on his back with knees raised, skull oriented NNE; the left arm was extended and the left thigh disturbed by a later grave cut. The burial position, grave goods, and date are characteristic of the Sredny Stog culture. The inventory included a retouched flint blade (its broken tip found deeper in the grave), two bifacial projectile points, and a bifacial axe-shaped blank. Additional displaced finds included another blade and the missing blade tip. The tools are patinated brown to gray flint with fine retouch and use-wear. He carried Y-haplogroup J2a (J-M319), linked to Caucasus populations such as the Maikop culture and Aknashen, but showed only older Mesolithic CHG ancestry. His mtDNA (T2a1b) was common among steppe groups. On PCA, he clustered close to the Yamnaya culture (Lazaridis et al. 2025). The Csongrád individual from Hungary, attributed to the Suvorovo culture, represents one of the earliest known cases showing osteological evidence consistent with riding, well before the classic Yamnaya horizon. He exhibited clear skeletal markers of habitual horseback riding, especially in the lower trunk and pelvic region, consistent with “horseman syndrome” (Trautmann et al. 2023). He carried Y-haplogroup Q-Y6802, linked to Khvalynsk. Autosomally, he was primarily Steppe Eneolithic, with a Khvalynsk grandparent—likely the source of his Y-DNA (Lazaridis et al. 2025). Culturally, some Steppe Eneolithic groups such as Berezhnevka are also attributed to the Khvalynsk culture (Khokhlov A.A., Gromov A.V., Grigoriev A.P., Kazarnitsky A.A., Kapinus Yu.O., Kitov E.P., 2024). In addition, horses were sacrificed and buried alongside cattle, sheep/goats, and humans at Khvalynsk, where no obviously wild mammals were included. Polished stone mace-heads shaped like horse heads proliferated across the steppes and spread into the Lower Danube valley between 4400–4000 BCE. Eneolithic horses, even if more skittish than modern ones, may have been ridden in quiet settings such as herding, allowing a mounted shepherd to oversee three times more sheep than a pedestrian one, producing a surplus useful for hosting feasts (Lazaridis et al. 2025). He is depicted with a “composite sword” from a related Giurgiulești burial in Moldova, which belonged to another Early Proto-Indo-European elite individual with Q1a Y-DNA (Blagoje Govedarica and Igor Manzura, Eurasia Antiqua 22, 2016 [2019]). The two individuals belonged to the Protoeuropoid type, a robust type that was widespread among the Ukr_N/Dnieper–Donets/Mariupol culture. This type is also documented in the early phase of the Rakushechny Yar culture in the Lower Don. This culture showed some similarities with the Mariupol culture, but also distinct differences, such as the absence of ochre (T.D. Balanovskaya, 1972, “Paleolithic and Neolithic of the USSR,” Volume 7). Samples from north of Rakushechny Yar, in the Middle Don (e.g., Golubaya Krinitsa, attributed to the Mariupol culture), show a substantial increase in CHG ancestry. This may indicate that the Neolithic Lower Don Rakushechny Yar culture (often linked by archaeologists to the Caucasus) was a possible source of CHG ancestry in Proto-Indo-Europeans, contributing, alongside the Dnieper-Donets/Mariupol culture, to the Protoeuropoid strain in early Steppe group, as well as to the majority of Proto-Indo-European ancestry. The migration of this Don population to the North Caucasus foothills, where they mixed with Mesopotamian-derived Caucasus farmers at Nalchik and its surroundings, and then to the Volga, where they mixed with local EHGs of the Ancienturalic strain, resulted in the Steppe Eneolithic proper genetic profile, which, after returning to the Don, formed the Proto-Indo-European Sredny Stog culture.

Ancestral Whispers

46,644 Aufrufe • vor 1 Monat

Facial Reconstruction of a 4,000-Year-Old couple from Gatyn-Kale, Chechnya The Gatyn-Kale burial ground lies about 3 km northwest of Aslanbek-Sheripovo (formerly Gatyn-Kale), near the road connecting Shatoy and Sharoy-Argun. The site is located on a small plateau that slopes eastward toward a stream valley. South of the burial ground, beyond a narrow rise, lies a broad hollow containing the medieval village of Gatyn-Kale and the steep canyon of the Verdy-Akhk. The reconstructed individuals, a young warrior and likely his wife, were buried in a paired burial no. 7. The young man stood approximately 179 cm tall, while the young woman was about 160 cm in height. The warrior had suffered a fatal blow to his head. Burial 7 contained more than sixty objects, including ceramic vessels, bronze items such as ornaments, amulets and weapons, beads, arrowheads, and ornaments made from Caspian Sea shells (Krupnov, E. I., 1961). The population of Gatyn-Kale engaged in pastoralism and agriculture. The society was patriarchal: research has shown that paired burials (men and women) appear with the emergence of patriarchy. At the Gatyn-Kale site several such graves have been discovered - in these cases the woman was sacrificed so that she could accompany her husband in the afterlife. (Markovin, V. I., 1969) The individuals whose DNA was sampled at Gatyn-Kale carried the Y-DNA haplogroup J1-Z1842 and autosomally belonged to the Kura-Araxes cluster (Ghalichi, 2024). Anthropologically, the Gatyn-Kale skulls are relatively gracile for the Bronze Age. They are characterized by small cranial dimensions, a medium cranial index, a moderately high cranial vault, a medium-height face, narrow cheekbones, and low orbits. Culturally and anthropologically, the burial ground appears to represent a contact zone between the tribes of North Caucasus and Dagestan. Comparisons with cranial series from Dagestan, Georgia, the South Caucasus, and the Trans-Volga region show that the Gatyn-Kale skulls resemble the Volga series in cranial indices, while in their gracile morphology they correspond more closely to the southern (Indo-Mediterranean) type. These features may represent either a gracilized Proto-Europoid type, a southern variant, or the result of interaction between northern and southern anthropological types. However, the absence of medium cheekbone breadth (which would have resulted from admixture between a wide-faced northern population and a narrow-faced southern population) argues against significant admixture, suggesting instead a local southern variant or influence from populations of the Northcaucasian cultural sphere (“Antiquities of Dagestan”, Makhachkala, 1974).
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Facial Reconstruction of a 4,000-Year-Old couple from Gatyn-Kale, Chechnya The Gatyn-Kale burial ground lies about 3 km northwest of Aslanbek-Sheripovo (formerly Gatyn-Kale), near the road connecting Shatoy and Sharoy-Argun. The site is located on a small plateau that slopes eastward toward a stream valley. South of the burial ground, beyond a narrow rise, lies a broad hollow containing the medieval village of Gatyn-Kale and the steep canyon of the Verdy-Akhk. The reconstructed individuals, a young warrior and likely his wife, were buried in a paired burial no. 7. The young man stood approximately 179 cm tall, while the young woman was about 160 cm in height. The warrior had suffered a fatal blow to his head. Burial 7 contained more than sixty objects, including ceramic vessels, bronze items such as ornaments, amulets and weapons, beads, arrowheads, and ornaments made from Caspian Sea shells (Krupnov, E. I., 1961). The population of Gatyn-Kale engaged in pastoralism and agriculture. The society was patriarchal: research has shown that paired burials (men and women) appear with the emergence of patriarchy. At the Gatyn-Kale site several such graves have been discovered - in these cases the woman was sacrificed so that she could accompany her husband in the afterlife. (Markovin, V. I., 1969) The individuals whose DNA was sampled at Gatyn-Kale carried the Y-DNA haplogroup J1-Z1842 and autosomally belonged to the Kura-Araxes cluster (Ghalichi, 2024). Anthropologically, the Gatyn-Kale skulls are relatively gracile for the Bronze Age. They are characterized by small cranial dimensions, a medium cranial index, a moderately high cranial vault, a medium-height face, narrow cheekbones, and low orbits. Culturally and anthropologically, the burial ground appears to represent a contact zone between the tribes of North Caucasus and Dagestan. Comparisons with cranial series from Dagestan, Georgia, the South Caucasus, and the Trans-Volga region show that the Gatyn-Kale skulls resemble the Volga series in cranial indices, while in their gracile morphology they correspond more closely to the southern (Indo-Mediterranean) type. These features may represent either a gracilized Proto-Europoid type, a southern variant, or the result of interaction between northern and southern anthropological types. However, the absence of medium cheekbone breadth (which would have resulted from admixture between a wide-faced northern population and a narrow-faced southern population) argues against significant admixture, suggesting instead a local southern variant or influence from populations of the Northcaucasian cultural sphere (“Antiquities of Dagestan”, Makhachkala, 1974).

Ancestral Whispers

30,204 Aufrufe • vor 2 Monaten

Facial reconstructions of a 3,200-year-old likely Para-Armenic man and a 2,600-year-old likely Proto-Georgian/Iberian man from Samtavro in Mtskheta, Georgia The Bronze Age in East Georgia marked several periods of population replacement. Starting from the Early BA, East Georgia was inhabited by the people of the Kura-Araxes culture, associated with Northeast Caucasian speakers. In the Middle BA, following a cataclysmic environmental event, people of the Catacomb culture migrated from the steppes into the eastern Caucasus, mixing with the previous Kura-Araxans and playing a major role in the formation of the Trialeti culture, associated with Armenic speakers. By the Late BA, the genetic cluster associated with the Trialetians spread throughout most of eastern Transcaucasus, with the inhabitants of Mtskheta belonging to this genetic cluster. who are known in the archaeological record to favor distinct leaf-shaped daggers and swords. At this period, a new wave of people from West Georgia and Samtskhe began migrating into Kartli and other parts of East Georgia, bringing new metallurgical technologies and their distinct Colchian and Koban-style axes, associated with Kartvelians. A few centuries later, these Kartvelian invaders imposed themselves as the dominant population, conquering the preceding inhabitants in what later would be known as Mtskheta, the capital of Kartli. Anthropologist Malkhaz Abdushelishvili described the 3,300-year-old Samtavro man as brachycephalic, with weakly expressed relief and a narrow, high face. In contrast, the 2,600-year-old man was described by Malkhaz Abdushelishvili as dolichocephalic, with a moderately developed brow ridge, relatively large cranial dimensions and massive cranial features, and a wide face. The initial LBA population of Mtskheta associated with the Trialeti cluster is generally gracile, and the deeper it goes into the Iron Age, the more massive and robust the population becomes, correlating with an increase in CHG ancestry brought by Kartvelian tribes.
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Facial reconstructions of a 3,200-year-old likely Para-Armenic man and a 2,600-year-old likely Proto-Georgian/Iberian man from Samtavro in Mtskheta, Georgia The Bronze Age in East Georgia marked several periods of population replacement. Starting from the Early BA, East Georgia was inhabited by the people of the Kura-Araxes culture, associated with Northeast Caucasian speakers. In the Middle BA, following a cataclysmic environmental event, people of the Catacomb culture migrated from the steppes into the eastern Caucasus, mixing with the previous Kura-Araxans and playing a major role in the formation of the Trialeti culture, associated with Armenic speakers. By the Late BA, the genetic cluster associated with the Trialetians spread throughout most of eastern Transcaucasus, with the inhabitants of Mtskheta belonging to this genetic cluster. who are known in the archaeological record to favor distinct leaf-shaped daggers and swords. At this period, a new wave of people from West Georgia and Samtskhe began migrating into Kartli and other parts of East Georgia, bringing new metallurgical technologies and their distinct Colchian and Koban-style axes, associated with Kartvelians. A few centuries later, these Kartvelian invaders imposed themselves as the dominant population, conquering the preceding inhabitants in what later would be known as Mtskheta, the capital of Kartli. Anthropologist Malkhaz Abdushelishvili described the 3,300-year-old Samtavro man as brachycephalic, with weakly expressed relief and a narrow, high face. In contrast, the 2,600-year-old man was described by Malkhaz Abdushelishvili as dolichocephalic, with a moderately developed brow ridge, relatively large cranial dimensions and massive cranial features, and a wide face. The initial LBA population of Mtskheta associated with the Trialeti cluster is generally gracile, and the deeper it goes into the Iron Age, the more massive and robust the population becomes, correlating with an increase in CHG ancestry brought by Kartvelian tribes.

Ancestral Whispers

30,183 Aufrufe • vor 4 Monaten

What did the Yamnaya and related Steppe populations look like? 🧵 Let's break down the morphology of the Yamnaya and explore which modern populations they most closely resemble.
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What did the Yamnaya and related Steppe populations look like? 🧵 Let's break down the morphology of the Yamnaya and explore which modern populations they most closely resemble.

Ancestral Whispers

50,534 Aufrufe • vor 1 Jahr

Facial reconstructions of a 2,500-year-old Sarmatian priestess and a Sarmatian warrior from the Filippovka kurgans in Orenburg region of Russia The first investigations of this site began in 1986, conducted by the Ufa Archaeological Expedition under the direction of Anatoly Kharitonovich Pshenichnyuk. Excavations of the central burial and nearby cache pits surrounding the main grave yielded a large number of objects made from precious metals, including the famous gold deer. In 2013, the study of this kurgan was completed by the Cis-Ural Expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, led by L. T. Yablonsky, who effectively saved the site through his rescue excavations. It was during the excavation of the remaining portion of the mound that he discovered a unique burial of a female priestess. Beneath the unexcavated eastern slope of the mound, an undisturbed female burial was found, untouched by looters and containing an exceptionally rich and diverse funerary assemblage comprising more than 1,200 objects. Among these were approximately 850 items made of precious metals and around 650 high-quality works of toreutics, Scytho-Siberian animal-style art, decorative and jewelry pieces, as well as a tattoo kit. The collection of artifacts from Burial 2 clearly indicates the extraordinarily high social status of the woman interred. The social role of women among the Sarmatians was so significant that Greek authors described them as “ruled by women.” Women fulfilled the roles of family and tribal priestesses, performing magical functions in rituals associated with pagan cults. The male remains, found with fragments of lamellar armor, originate from the central burial of the kurgan, which had already been looted in antiquity. The individual was a mature adult male. Minor postmortem deformation is visible in the occipital region, without affecting the facial skeleton. A well-developed muscular macrorrelief indicates strong physical development. The face is broad, relatively high, and flattened, with moderately projecting nasal bones. From a racial-anthropological perspective, this skull belongs to a brachycephalic, maturized Europoid type with facial flattening at the orbital level and a relatively weakly projecting nose. This represents a variant of the so-called “Eastern Europoid” type, with a minor Mongolid admixture, characteristic of part of the nomadic population of the Eurasian steppes during the Early Iron Age. (Aleksey Nechvaloda, 2015) The reconstructions were created and updated in collaboration with Alexey Nechvaloda for the Russian Scientific Conference with International Participation, “The Southern Urals in the Early Iron Age and the Great Migration Period: Cultural Connections and Interactions,” held in honor of the 90th anniversary of the birth of Anatoly Kharitonovich Pshenichnyuk (
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Facial reconstructions of a 2,500-year-old Sarmatian priestess and a Sarmatian warrior from the Filippovka kurgans in Orenburg region of Russia The first investigations of this site began in 1986, conducted by the Ufa Archaeological Expedition under the direction of Anatoly Kharitonovich Pshenichnyuk. Excavations of the central burial and nearby cache pits surrounding the main grave yielded a large number of objects made from precious metals, including the famous gold deer. In 2013, the study of this kurgan was completed by the Cis-Ural Expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, led by L. T. Yablonsky, who effectively saved the site through his rescue excavations. It was during the excavation of the remaining portion of the mound that he discovered a unique burial of a female priestess. Beneath the unexcavated eastern slope of the mound, an undisturbed female burial was found, untouched by looters and containing an exceptionally rich and diverse funerary assemblage comprising more than 1,200 objects. Among these were approximately 850 items made of precious metals and around 650 high-quality works of toreutics, Scytho-Siberian animal-style art, decorative and jewelry pieces, as well as a tattoo kit. The collection of artifacts from Burial 2 clearly indicates the extraordinarily high social status of the woman interred. The social role of women among the Sarmatians was so significant that Greek authors described them as “ruled by women.” Women fulfilled the roles of family and tribal priestesses, performing magical functions in rituals associated with pagan cults. The male remains, found with fragments of lamellar armor, originate from the central burial of the kurgan, which had already been looted in antiquity. The individual was a mature adult male. Minor postmortem deformation is visible in the occipital region, without affecting the facial skeleton. A well-developed muscular macrorrelief indicates strong physical development. The face is broad, relatively high, and flattened, with moderately projecting nasal bones. From a racial-anthropological perspective, this skull belongs to a brachycephalic, maturized Europoid type with facial flattening at the orbital level and a relatively weakly projecting nose. This represents a variant of the so-called “Eastern Europoid” type, with a minor Mongolid admixture, characteristic of part of the nomadic population of the Eurasian steppes during the Early Iron Age. (Aleksey Nechvaloda, 2015) The reconstructions were created and updated in collaboration with Alexey Nechvaloda for the Russian Scientific Conference with International Participation, “The Southern Urals in the Early Iron Age and the Great Migration Period: Cultural Connections and Interactions,” held in honor of the 90th anniversary of the birth of Anatoly Kharitonovich Pshenichnyuk (

Ancestral Whispers

15,659 Aufrufe • vor 4 Monaten

Facial reconstructions of 2,850-year-old Hurrians from Urmia The people of Iron Age Hasanlu were genetically a mixture of Zagrosians, Upper Mesopotamians, and Proto-Armenics. Hasanlu is an archaeological site of an ancient city located in northwest Iran, in the province of West Azerbaijan, just south of Lake Urmia. The settlement was likely associated with the Mannaeans, a Hurro-Urartian people with a possible Indo-European substrate related to the Armenic branch. The Hasanlu man was laid on his back beneath a hypogeum wall, head west, facing south with flexed legs. He had Rich grave goods - bronze and iron weapons, an iron armlet, jewelry, a decorated bronze belt, and ceramic vessels, indicating a high-status individual. The style of his belt and ornaments links his material culture to the South Caucasus and early Urartian cultural sphere, showing close artistic and technological connections between these regions around 900–850 BCE. The people of Dinkha III were likely Hurrian, and closely related to the Hasanlu Iron Age cultural horizon of the Urmia region. Dinkha III burials are primarily recognized by their associated grave goods, which are quite similar to those found in the Hasanlu excavations. The dead were buried in individual graves without markers; the brick tombs generally opened to the east. Men, women, and children were interred in the same area and apparently received the same burial rites. All burials were placed within pits, which were then refilled. The Dinkha Tepe individual was a mature adult, buried flexed on his back in a north-south orientation, with the head to the south. The right arm was bent back to touch the shoulder. He was buried with a plain bracelet with overlapping tapered ends on the right wrist; a stone button with drilled designs by the left foot; and assorted beads at the throat, including coarse faience, fine faience (possibly glass), paste, carnelian, and a lotus-bud-shaped bead of fine faience or glass. A socketed spear was placed along the left leg, such that the shaft must have passed over the body. At the feet were a dark gray burnished spouted vessel and a gray IIC worm bowl with two holes. Reconstructions commissioned by 𒁍𒊑 𒋗𒊑𒌍 Buri Šoreš 𓄂❤️☀️💚
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Facial reconstructions of 2,850-year-old Hurrians from Urmia The people of Iron Age Hasanlu were genetically a mixture of Zagrosians, Upper Mesopotamians, and Proto-Armenics. Hasanlu is an archaeological site of an ancient city located in northwest Iran, in the province of West Azerbaijan, just south of Lake Urmia. The settlement was likely associated with the Mannaeans, a Hurro-Urartian people with a possible Indo-European substrate related to the Armenic branch. The Hasanlu man was laid on his back beneath a hypogeum wall, head west, facing south with flexed legs. He had Rich grave goods - bronze and iron weapons, an iron armlet, jewelry, a decorated bronze belt, and ceramic vessels, indicating a high-status individual. The style of his belt and ornaments links his material culture to the South Caucasus and early Urartian cultural sphere, showing close artistic and technological connections between these regions around 900–850 BCE. The people of Dinkha III were likely Hurrian, and closely related to the Hasanlu Iron Age cultural horizon of the Urmia region. Dinkha III burials are primarily recognized by their associated grave goods, which are quite similar to those found in the Hasanlu excavations. The dead were buried in individual graves without markers; the brick tombs generally opened to the east. Men, women, and children were interred in the same area and apparently received the same burial rites. All burials were placed within pits, which were then refilled. The Dinkha Tepe individual was a mature adult, buried flexed on his back in a north-south orientation, with the head to the south. The right arm was bent back to touch the shoulder. He was buried with a plain bracelet with overlapping tapered ends on the right wrist; a stone button with drilled designs by the left foot; and assorted beads at the throat, including coarse faience, fine faience (possibly glass), paste, carnelian, and a lotus-bud-shaped bead of fine faience or glass. A socketed spear was placed along the left leg, such that the shaft must have passed over the body. At the feet were a dark gray burnished spouted vessel and a gray IIC worm bowl with two holes. Reconstructions commissioned by 𒁍𒊑 𒋗𒊑𒌍 Buri Šoreš 𓄂❤️☀️💚

Ancestral Whispers

10,944 Aufrufe • vor 3 Monaten

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