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Using a combination of modern cell biology techniques, including #trafficking assays, #CRISPR, and secretomics, Pereira, Stalder, David Gershlick et al. Cambridge University reveal that the exocyst complex has a fundamental role in protein secretion.

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Journal of Cell Biology

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Emanuel (Mannie) Fabian

16,739 Aufrufe • vor 9 Monaten

The bacterial flagellum looks like a simple tail, or whip. But it’s actually a rotating motor, and perhaps the most sophisticated protein complex nature has ever evolved. In e. coli, these motors are capable of astonishing speeds; about 15,000 rpm. (The world record, according to one study, is for a Vibrio cell that was “clocked at 100,000 rpm by laser microscopy.) The flagellum propels the cell forward at speeds of 20-30 microns per second, or roughly 15 body lengths per second. If scaled up to the size of a cheetah, E. coli would *nearly* be the fastest land organism. The darting movements of a microbe were first observed in 1676 by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch cloth merchant. Antony was delighted by the motion of his “animalcules,” writing: “I must say, for my part, that no more pleasant sight has ever yet come before my eye than these many thousands of living creatures, seen all alive in a little drop of water, moving among one another, each several creature having its own proper motion.” But Leeuwenhoek did not see flagella. He assumed, rather, that these animalcules must be “furnished with paws” instead. Christian Ehrenberg would not properly describe flagella until 1836. But amazingly, all the way up until the 1970s, nobody actually knew how the flagellum spun! In 1973, there were two competing models people argued over: the helical-wave (bending) model and the rotating (corkscrew) model. The first model suggested that the flagellum whipped back and forth, side-to-side, to propel the cell like paddle. The corkscrew model suggested that the whole flagellum instead spins around like a screw. In 1974, the corkscrew model finally won out. For two separate studies, scientists affixed flagella to glass slides using antibodies, and watched as the cells spun around and around like corkscrews. And finally, in just the last year, high-resolution structures of the flagellum have revealed a LOT more about its intricate assembly. The tail is made from ~20,000 self-assembling copies of a single protein, called flagellin. A “driveshaft,” or rod, spins the tail and is itself made of 26 protein subunits. Each “motor” in E. coli consists of 11 stators, each of which is made from 7 proteins.(Other types of cells have even more stators, and swim with much higher torques.) The flagellum spins when protons flow into the cell through tiny channels in these stators; akin to water running through a turbine. Each proton makes a small part of the stator change shape and push against the rotor, nudging it forward one step. With dozens of stators working at once, these nudges quickly spin the propeller. I'm writing an essay for Asimov Press about this now, and am really enjoying learning about the flagellum and its history. It's an extraordinarily complicated structure, though, and has been a challenge to understand!
0:05

The bacterial flagellum looks like a simple tail, or whip. But it’s actually a rotating motor, and perhaps the most sophisticated protein complex nature has ever evolved. In e. coli, these motors are capable of astonishing speeds; about 15,000 rpm. (The world record, according to one study, is for a Vibrio cell that was “clocked at 100,000 rpm by laser microscopy.) The flagellum propels the cell forward at speeds of 20-30 microns per second, or roughly 15 body lengths per second. If scaled up to the size of a cheetah, E. coli would *nearly* be the fastest land organism. The darting movements of a microbe were first observed in 1676 by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch cloth merchant. Antony was delighted by the motion of his “animalcules,” writing: “I must say, for my part, that no more pleasant sight has ever yet come before my eye than these many thousands of living creatures, seen all alive in a little drop of water, moving among one another, each several creature having its own proper motion.” But Leeuwenhoek did not see flagella. He assumed, rather, that these animalcules must be “furnished with paws” instead. Christian Ehrenberg would not properly describe flagella until 1836. But amazingly, all the way up until the 1970s, nobody actually knew how the flagellum spun! In 1973, there were two competing models people argued over: the helical-wave (bending) model and the rotating (corkscrew) model. The first model suggested that the flagellum whipped back and forth, side-to-side, to propel the cell like paddle. The corkscrew model suggested that the whole flagellum instead spins around like a screw. In 1974, the corkscrew model finally won out. For two separate studies, scientists affixed flagella to glass slides using antibodies, and watched as the cells spun around and around like corkscrews. And finally, in just the last year, high-resolution structures of the flagellum have revealed a LOT more about its intricate assembly. The tail is made from ~20,000 self-assembling copies of a single protein, called flagellin. A “driveshaft,” or rod, spins the tail and is itself made of 26 protein subunits. Each “motor” in E. coli consists of 11 stators, each of which is made from 7 proteins.(Other types of cells have even more stators, and swim with much higher torques.) The flagellum spins when protons flow into the cell through tiny channels in these stators; akin to water running through a turbine. Each proton makes a small part of the stator change shape and push against the rotor, nudging it forward one step. With dozens of stators working at once, these nudges quickly spin the propeller. I'm writing an essay for Asimov Press about this now, and am really enjoying learning about the flagellum and its history. It's an extraordinarily complicated structure, though, and has been a challenge to understand!

Niko McCarty.

51,893 Aufrufe • vor 11 Monaten

✅Explanation of Meaning (by parts): 1. “Having studied and confirmed that biological evolution on planet Earth” : The author begins by referencing the study of biological evolution on Earth, asserting that scientific investigation has established a clear understanding of its processes, setting a foundation for further claims. 2. “which gave birth to all living things” : Evolution is credited with the origin of all life on Earth, emphasizing its role as the mechanism through which the diversity and complexity of living organisms, including humans, arose over billions of years. 3. “had no purpose” : The author asserts that this evolutionary process lacks a predetermined purpose or intentional design, suggesting that life’s development is driven by natural, undirected mechanisms like mutation and selection, not a teleological goal. 4. “one can easily find answers to other fundamental questions of existence” : By accepting evolution’s purposelessness, the author claims that it becomes simpler to address broader existential questions, implying that this understanding provides a framework for tackling issues like the meaning of life or the Universe’s nature. 🗝️Main Idea (refined version): The author asserts that scientific study confirms biological evolution on Earth, which produced all life, operates without purpose, driven by natural mechanisms rather than intentional design. This understanding facilitates answers to fundamental existential questions, offering clarity on life’s meaning and our place in the cosmos. Recognizing evolution’s purposelessness challenges teleological views, fostering a perspective rooted in empirical reality. It encourages humility, acknowledging our existence as a product of chance rather than destiny. This insight simplifies complex philosophical inquiries, aligning them with scientific principles. It inspires a rational approach to exploring existence, free from preconceived notions of purpose. Ultimately, it empowers us to construct personal and collective meaning within a Universe governed by natural laws, embracing our role as products of a remarkable, undirected process.
0:11

✅Explanation of Meaning (by parts): 1. “Having studied and confirmed that biological evolution on planet Earth” : The author begins by referencing the study of biological evolution on Earth, asserting that scientific investigation has established a clear understanding of its processes, setting a foundation for further claims. 2. “which gave birth to all living things” : Evolution is credited with the origin of all life on Earth, emphasizing its role as the mechanism through which the diversity and complexity of living organisms, including humans, arose over billions of years. 3. “had no purpose” : The author asserts that this evolutionary process lacks a predetermined purpose or intentional design, suggesting that life’s development is driven by natural, undirected mechanisms like mutation and selection, not a teleological goal. 4. “one can easily find answers to other fundamental questions of existence” : By accepting evolution’s purposelessness, the author claims that it becomes simpler to address broader existential questions, implying that this understanding provides a framework for tackling issues like the meaning of life or the Universe’s nature. 🗝️Main Idea (refined version): The author asserts that scientific study confirms biological evolution on Earth, which produced all life, operates without purpose, driven by natural mechanisms rather than intentional design. This understanding facilitates answers to fundamental existential questions, offering clarity on life’s meaning and our place in the cosmos. Recognizing evolution’s purposelessness challenges teleological views, fostering a perspective rooted in empirical reality. It encourages humility, acknowledging our existence as a product of chance rather than destiny. This insight simplifies complex philosophical inquiries, aligning them with scientific principles. It inspires a rational approach to exploring existence, free from preconceived notions of purpose. Ultimately, it empowers us to construct personal and collective meaning within a Universe governed by natural laws, embracing our role as products of a remarkable, undirected process.

Zafar Mirzo | Quotes

2,924,909 Aufrufe • vor 1 Jahr

The IDF destroyed the headquarters of the Shajeya terrorist organization Hamas; The combat teams of the commando formation and the 7th brigade raided terrorist infrastructures and eliminated terrorists in the heart of the city of Khan Yunis During the operation, the fighters eliminated terrorists and destroyed a tunnel shaft containing a terrorist who tried to throw a bomb at our forces. The complex was destroyed by air force aircraft, tanks and engineering forces. Also, the fighters of the 414th collection battalion made the first use of a "Maoz" drone, in which they exposed and attacked a terrorist cell in the area. In the last day, the combat teams of the commando formation and the 7th brigade raided terrorist infrastructures in the heart of the city of Khan Yunis, eliminated many terrorists and located tunnel shafts of the terrorist organization Hamas. During the raids, the forces destroyed a weapons warehouse using a "steel stinger". In addition, the fighters located a tunnel shaft with motorcycles inside it that were used by the Hamas terrorists in the murderous attack on October 7. In addition, an Air Force fighter jet attacked a building that was used as a hiding place for terrorists and an aircraft eliminated three terrorists who tried to attack our forces.
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The IDF destroyed the headquarters of the Shajeya terrorist organization Hamas; The combat teams of the commando formation and the 7th brigade raided terrorist infrastructures and eliminated terrorists in the heart of the city of Khan Yunis During the operation, the fighters eliminated terrorists and destroyed a tunnel shaft containing a terrorist who tried to throw a bomb at our forces. The complex was destroyed by air force aircraft, tanks and engineering forces. Also, the fighters of the 414th collection battalion made the first use of a "Maoz" drone, in which they exposed and attacked a terrorist cell in the area. In the last day, the combat teams of the commando formation and the 7th brigade raided terrorist infrastructures in the heart of the city of Khan Yunis, eliminated many terrorists and located tunnel shafts of the terrorist organization Hamas. During the raids, the forces destroyed a weapons warehouse using a "steel stinger". In addition, the fighters located a tunnel shaft with motorcycles inside it that were used by the Hamas terrorists in the murderous attack on October 7. In addition, an Air Force fighter jet attacked a building that was used as a hiding place for terrorists and an aircraft eliminated three terrorists who tried to attack our forces.

Mossad Commentary

455,369 Aufrufe • vor 2 Jahren